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AY Honors/Tapa Cloth/Answer Key

2021-12-02T19:23:12Z

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Tapa cloth (or simply tapa) is a bark cloth made in the islands of the Pacific Ocean, primarily in Tonga, Samoa and Fiji, but as far afield as Niue, Cook Islands, Futuna, Solomon Islands, Java, New Zealand, Vanuatu, Papua New Guinea (particularly in Oro Province around Tufi) and Hawaiʻi (where it is called kapa). In French Polynesia it has nearly disappeared, except for some villages in the Marquesas.


In former times the cloth was primarily used for clothing, but now cotton and other textiles have replaced it. The major problem with tapa clothing is that the tissue is just like paper: it loses strength when wet and falls apart. In spite of this, it was better than grass-skirts, which usually are either heavier and harder or easily blown apart.


Nowadays tapa is still often worn on formal occasions such as weddings. Another use is as blanket at night. It is also highly prized for its decorative value and is often used as a decorative wall hanging. In Tonga a family is considered poor, no matter how much money they have, if they do not have any tapa in stock at home ready to give as a gift at weddings, funerals and so forth. A tapa given as a gift by a chief or even the royal family is considered highly valuable.


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This 5 part series of short videos covers Tapa across the Pacific and shows everything from how mulberry trees are propagated and planted, through the preparation and dyeing of the tapa.


[[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T7Cap1ypBMg Part 1]]
[[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3rDLNEDrpWw Part 2]]
[[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1wFRzp05qk Part 3]]
[[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LMK9dOqKcbE Part 4]]
[[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_BTNIWdBRw8 Part 5]]


Also this lady shows Hawaiian kapa making, and reviews the tools she uses for teaching the art. [[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d2Q5SxxhVno Hawaii video]]


The basic process of making the cloth from mulberry bark is the same, but there is considerable variation in how:


*The cloth is glued together into bigger pieces - with tapioca root or other ways
*The patterns beaten into (or not) the cloth
*The dyes used


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Originally, tapa cloth was most likely made from the bark of the Dye-fig (''Ficus tinctoria''), endemic to Oceania. Sometime in history during the voyages of migration, the paper mulberry tree (''Broussonetia papyrifera'') was introduced from Southeast Asia. The bark of the paper mulberry is much better suited to making tapa cloth, and so severely curtailed the use of the Dye-fig.


Many other trees provide the tools and dyes to make the tapa cloth. They vary by island, but traditionally include:


*Ironwood for the mallet used to beat the cloth.
*Coconut fiber used under the logs as shock absorbers
*Coconut fiber used to make patterns for transfer to cloth
*various hardwood to make the anvil
*Tree bark used to make the dye


See the videos for specifics


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As Tonga is the country where tapa is still a part of daily life, the following description is given for that country. Although on other islands the overall process is about the same, there still might be several smaller or larger differences.


In Tonga ''hiapo'' is the name given to the paper-mulberry tree. People have bunches of them growing in a corner of their plantations. They are cut and brought home where the first task is to strip the bark from the trees. The strips are about hand wide and person long. The wood so left over is named ''mokofute''. The bark consists of 2 layers. In the next step the outer bark is to be scraped or split off from the inner bark. This work is called ''ha'alo''. The outerbark is discarded, the innerbark, named ''tutu'' or ''loututu'', is left over. It is first dried in the sun before being soaked.


After this, the bark is beaten on a wooden ''tutua'' anvil using wooden mallets called ''ike''. In the beating the bark is made thinner and spread out to a width of about 25 cm. This phase of the work is called ''tutu'' (or ''tutua''). The mallets are flat on one side and have coarse and fine grooves on the other sides. First the coarse sides are used, and towards the end of the work the flat side (''tā-tuʻa''). The continuous "thonk" beats of the tapa mallet is still a normal sound in the Tongan villages. If several women work together they can make a concert out of it. In that case there might be one who ''tukipotu'', beats the end of the ''tutua'' to set the rhythm.


When the strips are thin enough, several strips are taken together and beaten together into a large sheet. Some starch from the ''kumala'', or ''manioke'' may be rubbed on places which are unwilling to stick. This part of the work is called ''ʻopoʻopo'', the glue is called ''tou'' and the resulting sheet of tapa is called ''fetaʻaki''. It then consists of two layers of strips in perpendicular direction, the upper one called ''lauʻolunga'' and the lower one ''laulalo''. A knife or sharp shell named ''mutu'' is used to trim the edges, and the pieces fallen off in this process are called ''papanaki''. When the white fetaʻaki is smoked brown, it is called ''sala''.


Often the women of a whole village work together on a huge sheet of tapa. A donation to the church or their chief at an important occasion. Such sheets are about 3 meters wide and 15, or 30, or sometimes even 60 meters long. The 15 meter pieces are called ''launima'' (meaning: five-sheet, because the sheet is 5 squares), and the 30 meter pieces are called ''lautefuhi''.


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The ''fetaʻaki'' is almost always painted. It then becomes ''ngatu'', the Tongan word for the final product. The painting is done over the whole length, but only the central 2.5 meter in the width direction. On both sides there is an unpainted border of about 20 cm wide, which is called the ''tapa'' (in Tonga). In order to paint it, the sheets are first put over a huge wooden drum covered with stencils or ''kupesi''. These stencils are made from coconut front midribs (or any other sticks of a few millimeter thick). These stencils are made in the pattern which will be used. There are a handful of standard ''kupesi'' designs, like the 'Pine road' (the road from the palace to the royal cemetery), or the 'Shield of Tonga', or the 'Lion' (the king), or the 'Dove' (the king as ruler), and more abstract figures like the 'Manulua' (2 birds).


The tapa sheet is put over the drum and the women now rub with force a dabber with some brown paint (made from the ''koka'' tree ''(Bischofia javanica))'' over the sheet. This work is called ''tataʻi''. Where they rub over a rib of the ''kupesi'' more paint will stick to that position while very little will stick elsewhere. In this way the basic pattern is put on the sheet. Once a part is done, they lift up the sheet and proceed to the next strip and so forth. Only when the whole sheet has been preprocessed, then it will be spread out on the ground and with a brush (made from ''Pandanus'' seeds) the women will accentuate the faintly visible marks with some more generous paint, this time made from the ''tongo'', the mangrove ''(Rhizophora mangle)''. Both ''koka'' and ''tongo'' paint are always brown, but the latter is much darker. Black is not used in Tonga, although it is characteristic for Fiji.


It is customary that during the paint process lines are drawn on the ''ngatu'' along the width every 45 cm or more. The ''kupesi'' too are made to the size that they will fit in the divisions thusly made. Such a division is known as ''langanga'' and they are numbered (on the blank ''tapa'') from one to as many as needed for the whole length. When a smaller piece of ngatu is needed, the sheet is cut along a ''langanga'' division. A 4 to 6 ''langanga'' piece is called ''folaʻosi''. An 8 piece is ''fātuua'', while a 10 ''langanga'' piece of ''ngatu'' is known as ''toka hongofulu''. Less common are the double ''fātuua'', named ''fātufā'' or double of that again, the ''fātuvalu''.


These are the traditional ''ngatu'', as evidenced by the extensive vocabulary used (still many more terms exist). Nowadays for the tourist trade other sizes and designs can be made as well done.


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This is part of the "do" section of the honor. Enjoy collecting the cloth samples. You might try craft or traditional markets, or if you live outside the an area where tapa cloth is made, look on the internet.


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==References== 
# {{deadlink|link=[http://www.ebay.com/gds/polynesian-tapa-barkcloth-the-cloth-of-island-kings/10000000001650920/g.html Guide to Tapa Cloth]}}
# The definitive [http://amzn.to/14eP2Yk book on Tapa cloth]
# {{deadlink|link=[http://www.magsq.com.au/_dbase_upl/Education%20sheets.pdf PDF with info and discussion questions]}}
# A clear video of the [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zdHOf1Q6GEE tapa process]
# [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7umj7aRBY9s Tapa making on Pitcairn Island]
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AY Honors/Māori Lore/Answer Key

2021-09-21T01:46:33Z

BoisSar:

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[[Image:Marae, Raiatea 2.jpg|thumb|390px|Taputapuātea, an ancient marae at Ra'iātea in the Society Islands, restored in 1994.]]A '''marae''' is a sacred place which served both religious and social purposes in pre-Christian Polynesian societies and in some modern Polynesian societies, such as Māori, today. In all these languages, the word also means "cleared, free of weeds, trees, etc." It generally consists of an area of cleared land roughly rectangular (the marae itself), bordered with stones or wooden posts (called ''au'' in Tahitian and Cook Islands Māori) perhaps with terraces (''paepae'') which were used in olden times for ceremonial purposes; and with a central stone ''ahu'' or ''a'u'' (sometimes as in the Rapanui culture's ahu on Easter Island "ahu" becomes a synonym for the whole marae complex).


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A Pōwhiri is a Māori welcoming ceremony involving speeches, dancing, singing and hongi. It can be performed both to welcome guests onto a marae or during other ceremonies, such as during a dedication of a building (where the performers might welcome the owners or future users of the building). A pōwhiri is not performed for every group of manuhiri (visitors). It is often reserved for special visitors or for tupapaku (the arrival of the body of the deceased) for a tangihanga (funeral). However, powhiri are also often performed for tourist groups as part of special events.
{{clear}}


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'''Karakia''' is the Māori word for incantations and prayers. Karakia are generally used to ensure a favourable outcome of important undertakings. They are also considered a formal greeting when beginning a ceremony. According to legend, in the village of Ruatoria, there was a curse on the Waiapu River which was lifted when Hori Keeti performed Karakia.


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''Mate'' means "death" in Māori. "Ka Mate" is a Māori ''haka'' composed by Te Rauparaha, war leader of the Ngāti Toa tribe of the North Island of New Zealand:
the main body of the haka:


{| class="wikitable"
|--
|Ka mate, ka mate! ka ora! ka ora!
Ka mate! ka mate! ka ora! ka ora!


Tēnei te tangata pūhuruhuru


Nāna nei i tiki mai whakawhiti te rā


Ā, upane! ka upane!


Ā, upane, ka upane, whiti te ra!
|’Tis death! ‘tis death! ''(or: I may die)'' ’Tis life! ‘tis life! ''(or: I may live)''
’Tis death! ‘tis death! ’Tis life! ‘tis life!


This the hairy man that stands here...


…who brought the sun and caused it to shine


A step upward, another step upward!


A step upward, another... the Sun shines!
|}


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Waiata is the Māori word for song.


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Kōrero is the spoken word. Māori is a culture based on Kōrero, the oral tradition. Māori place as much importance on the spoken word as Western cultures place on the written word. In the Western world, people are bound by written contracts and laws are written down before they may come into effect. In Māori, Kōrero is binding.


[http://www.maori.org.nz/Tikanga/default.asp?pid=sp100&parent=95 www.maori.org.nz].


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[[Image:MaoriWardanceKahuroa.jpg|thumb|260px|The haka is a traditional genre of Māori dance. This depiction of a haka as a war dance dates from ca. 1845.]]
A haka is a traditional dance form. It is a posture dance with shouted accompaniment, performed by a group. Although the use of a haka by the ''All Blacks'' (a rugby team) has made one type of haka familiar, it has led to misconceptions. Haka are not exclusively war dances, nor are they only performed by men. Some are performed by women, others by mixed groups, and some simple haka are performed by children. Haka are performed for various reasons: for amusement, as a hearty welcome to distinguished guests, or to acknowledge great achievements or occasions. War haka, which had their own term, 'peruperu', were originally performed by warriors before a battle, proclaiming their strength and prowess in order to intimidate the opposition. Today, haka constitute an integral part of formal or official welcome ceremonies for distinguished visitors or foreign dignitaries, serving to impart a sense of the importance of the occasion.


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''Kuia'' (also ''kui'') is the Māori word for "grandmother".


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In the Māori language, ''Tāne'' means "man".


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In the Māori language, ''Wero'' means "challenge". At the beginning of a Powhiri, the people must first determine if the visitors have peaceful intentions or not. This is done through the wero which literally means "to cast a spear." The warriors performing the wero will make frightening gestures with spears. Once the challenge is complete, the warriors will guide the visitors to the marae where they will be welcomed by the women and children.


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In Polynesian culture (for example, Hawaiian and Māori), mana is a spiritual quality considered to have supernatural origin – a sacred impersonal force existing in the universe. Therefore to have ''mana'' is to have influence and authority, and efficacy – the power to perform in a given situation. This essential quality of ''mana'' is not limited to persons – peoples, governments, places and inanimate objects can possess ''mana''. In Hawaiian, ''mana loa'' means "great power". People or objects that possess ''mana'' are accorded "respect"; because their possession of ''mana'' gives them "authority", "power", and "prestige". In Māori, a tribe that has ''mana whenua'' is considered to have demonstrated their authority over a given piece of land or territory. The word’s meaning is complex because ''mana'' is a basic foundation of the Polynesian worldview.


The magazine ''Māori Law Review'' suggests two essential aspects to a Māori person's ''mana'':


* ''mana tangata'', authority derived from ''whakapapa'' connections, and
* ''mana huaanga'', defined as "authority derived from having a wealth of resources to gift to others to bind them into reciprocal obligations".


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Manuhiri are visitors. Locals and visitors have to respect certain rules, especially during the rituals of encounter. This is when the phrase tāngata whenua (people of the land) comes into play. Should a group of people come to stay on a marae, they are considered manuhiri (guests) while the owners of the marae are known as tāngata whenua. Should other groups of manuhiri arrive, the manuhiri who arrived previously - regardless of their race - are considered tāngata whenua for the purposes of formally welcoming the new group. When Māori refer to themselves as tāngata whenua this is not done solely to emphasise their indigenous status, as is often assumed, because the connotation in Māori of the phrase is one not of separation but rather of welcome and inclusion.


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A '''Hongi''' is a traditional Māori greeting in New Zealand. It is done by pressing one's nose to another person at an encounter. See below.


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A hui is a New Zealand Māori social gathering or assembly in a Māori community.


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Poroporoaki is the final farewell during a ''powhiri''. When the poroporoaki is concluded, the ''mana'' returns to the host. It is a solemn occasion during which the people reflect on the welcome they have received, and recognize that they may not experience another ''powhiri'' before their death.


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Whānau is a Māori-language word for extended family. Other meanings, though less commonly used in English, are to give birth, or genus.


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Tangi is a Māori funeral rite.


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''Aroha'' can be best translated as "love," but the meaning is deeper than that. The Māori believe that ''Aroha'' is the force that binds the universe together.


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Whakairo is a Māori form of carving. Carvings are made from wood, jade, bone, or basalt.


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''Koro'' is a Māori chief.


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Kaumatua are respected tribal elders of either gender in a Māori community who have been involved with their whānau for a number of years. They are appointed by their people who believe the chosen elders have the capacity to teach and guide both current and future generations.


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''Wahine'' is the Māori word for "woman".


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A Māori word literally meaning "homage" or "respect".


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Whaikorero means "formal speech" or "oration".


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Tangata whenua is a Māori term literally meaning "people of the land", from tangata, 'people' and whenua land. In the context of tribal descent and ownership of land, tangata whenua are the people who descend from the first people to settle the land of the district, whereas the actual mana may reside with later arrivals. However, in the context of a marae, the tangata whenua are the owners of the marae, in contradistinction to the manuhiri or guests. After the welcoming ceremony on a marae, the guests may be afforded the temporary, honorary status of tangata whenua, and may even be invited to participate as locals as the ceremonies continue. In the national context of New Zealand, Māori are the tangata whenua, and in this sense the term is equivalent to 'indigenous'.


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A taonga in Māori culture is a treasured thing, whether tangible or intangible. Tangible examples are all sorts of heirlooms and artefacts, land and fisheries. Intangible examples may include language, spiritual beliefs, radio frequencies and riparian rights.


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[[File:Polynesian Migration.svg|thumb|600px|center|<center>Polynesian migration routes</center>]]


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Various Māori traditions recount how their ancestors set out from a mythical homeland in great ocean-going canoes (or waka). Some of these traditions name the homeland as Hawaiki.


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Various Māori traditions recount how their ancestors set out from a mythical homeland in great ocean-going canoes (or waka). Some of these traditions name the homeland as Hawaiki.


Among these is the story of Kupe, who had eloped with Kuramarotini, the wife of Hoturapa, the owner of the great canoe Matahourua, whom Kupe had murdered. To escape punishment for the murder, Kupe and Kura fled in Matahourua and discovered a land he called Aotearoa ('long-white-cloud'). He explored its coast and killed the sea monster Te Wheke-a-Muturangi, finally returning to his home to spread news of his newly discovered land.


Other stories of various other tribes report migrations to escape famine, over-population, and warfare. These were made in legendary canoes, the best known of which are Aotea, Arawa, Kurahaupō, Mataatua, Tainui, Tākitimu, and Tokomaru. Various traditions name numerous other canoes. Some, including the Āraiteuru, are well known; others including the Kirauta and the sacred Arahura and Mahangaatuamatua are little known. Rather than arriving in a single fleet, the journeys may have occurred over several centuries.


An important early collector and preserver of Māori traditions was the surveyor and ethnologist Stephenson Percy Smith. He believed that while the Polynesian traditions may have been flawed in detail, they preserved the threads of truth which could be recovered using a method already well established for Hawaiian traditions by Fornander (1878-1885). This method involved seeking out common elements of tradition from different sources, and aligning these to genealogies to give a time frame for the events. Abraham Fornander, Smith, and others used this method to reconstruct the migrations of the Polynesians, tracing them back to a supposed ancient homeland in India.


S. Percy Smith used the Fornander method, combining disparate traditions from various parts of New Zealand and other parts of Polynesia, to derive a now discredited version of Māori migration to New Zealand -- the 'Great Fleet' hypothesis. Through an examination of the genealogies of various tribes, he came up with a set of precise dates for his 'Great Fleet' and the explorers that he and others posited as having paved the way for the fleet.


According to Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Smith’s account went as follows. In 750 AD the Polynesian explorer Kupe discovered an uninhabited New Zealand. Then in 1000–1100 AD, the Polynesian explorers Toi and Whātonga visited New Zealand, and found it inhabited by a primitive, nomadic people known as the Moriori. Finally, in 1350 AD a ‘great fleet’ of seven canoes – Aotea, Kurahaupō, Mataatua, Tainui, Tokomaru, Te Arawa and Tākitimu – all departed from the Tahitian region at the same time, bringing the people now known as Māori to New Zealand. These were advanced, warlike, agricultural tribes who destroyed the Moriori." The great fleet scenario won general acceptance, its adherents even including the famous Māori ethnologist Te Rangi Hīroa (Sir Peter Buck), and was taught in New Zealand schools. However it was effectively demolished during the 1960s by the ethnologist David Simmons, who showed that it derived from an incomplete and indiscriminate study of Māori tradition as recorded in the 19th Century. Simmons also suggests that some of these 'migrations' may actually have been journeys within New Zealand.


Historian Rāwiri Taonui, writing in 2006 for the website Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, accuses Smith of falsification: "The Great Fleet theory was the result of a collaboration between the 19th-century ethnologist S. Percy Smith and the Māori scholar Hoani Te Whatahoro Jury. Smith obtained details about places in Rarotonga and Tahiti during a visit in 1897, while Jury provided information about Māori canoes in New Zealand. Smith then ‘cut and pasted’ his material, combining several oral traditions into new ones. Their joint work was published in two books, in which Jury and Smith falsely attributed much of their information to two 19th-century tohunga, Moihi Te Mātorohanga and Nēpia Pōhūhū" (Taonui 2006).


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{{AY Honors/Problematic requirement
|"Make in the canoe" is obviously a grammatical gaffe.It was most probably supposed to say to "mark".
|Draw or trace a map of New Zealand showing all the major tribal areas, and the name of the canoe for each.
}}


[[Image:IwiMap.png|Tribal areas of New Zealand]]


These are the seven legendary canoes proposed by historian Stephenson Percy Smith in his "Great Fleet hypothesis." Various traditions name numerous other canoes.


{| class="wikitable"
! '''Name of Canoe'''
! '''Regional Traditions'''
! '''Associated Iwi or Hapu'''
|-
| Aotea || Taranaki, Waikato || Ngā Rauru Kītahi, Ngāti Ruanui
|-
| Te Arawa || Bay of Plenty, East Coast, Waikato || Ngāti Tūwharetoa, Te Arawa
|-
| Kurahaupō || Northland, Taranaki || Ngati Apa, Ngāti Kurī, Ngati Ruanui
|-
| Mataatua || Bay of Plenty, Northland || Ngā Puhi, Ngāi Te Rangi, Ngāti Awa, Ngāti Pūkenga, Te Whakatōhea
|-
| Tainui || Auckland, Bay of Plenty, Taranaki, Waikato || Ngāti Raukawa Ngāti Maniapoto, Ngāti Maru, Ngāti Pāoa, Ngāti Rongoū, Ngāti Tamaterā, Ngāti Whanaunga
|-
| Tākitimu || Bay of Plenty, East Coast, South Island || Muriwhenua, Ngāti Kahungunu, Ngāti Ranginui, Ngāi Tahu
|-
| Tokomaru || Taranaki || Ngati Tama, Ngati Mutunga, Ngati Rāhiri, Manukorihi, Puketapu, Te Atiawa, Ngati Maru
|-
|}


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[[Image:Rangitoto island from north head.jpg|thumb|600px|left|Rangitoto Island as viewed from North Head.]]
Rangitoto Island is a volcanic island in the Hauraki Gulf near Auckland, New Zealand. Rangitoto is Māori for 'Bloody Sky', with the name coming from the full phrase Nga Rangi-i-totongia-a Tama-te-kapua ('The days of the bleeding of Tama-te-kapua').
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{{AY Honors/Problematic requirement
|This honor originated in the SPD, targeted a New Zealand Pathfinders who could visit a marae event with reasonable ease. When accepted by the GC is was not modified to reflect the goal of making all honors accessible to all Pathfinders.
|Suggested alternative requirement: Research a marae and write a report detailing their history and structure.
}}
A hui can be called for many reasons, including a wedding, birth, funeral, or even a meeting to discuss community decisions.


If you arrive at the marae before the rest of your group, wait for them before entering. Visitors are always welcomed in groups, and to enter all by yourself is a violation of protocol. When your whole group has arrived, you may enter the marae, and you will be welcomed in a powhiri ceremony.


It might be a good idea to bring a small notebook and pen along so you can take notes about what is happening. A hui follows a prescribed structure. If you do not understand everything that happens, ask your host afterwards.


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As described previously, ''mate'' means "death" in Māori.


Tangihanga, or more commonly, Tangi, is a Māori funeral rite. Tangihanga takes place at a marae, and each manuhiri (visiting group) receives a pohiri (formal greeting). Some tribes will not perform a pohiri after dark, so the visitors must arrive before dusk.


A collection is taken up to defray the costs of embalming, to defray the costs of the marae, or both.


On the final night of the tangihanga, people tell stories, sing, and tell jokes to help cheer the grieving family. Burial takes place the following day. After the body is lowered into the grave, people are given an opportunity to say a final farewell. Then everyone present files by the grave and throws in either a flower or a handful of soil.


If the deceased lived near the cemetery, the people go there after the burial and bless the house. Otherwise, this is done sometime later. After the house blessing, a Hakari (final feast) is held, during which people will speak or perform. The Hakari is a celebration and affirmation of life.


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Food was considered communal property among the Māori. It was distributed by an official who was placed in charge of the food warehouse. Communal ownership of food prevented an unlucky fisherman (and his family) from going hungry.


Before contact with Europeans was established, the Māori diet consisted primarily of vegetables, though fish was not an uncommon food. They correctly believed that diet affected health, and that regular bowels were an important aspect of general health.


The Māori ate two meals per day. Breakfast was eaten a few hours after waking, and dinner was eaten in the early evening. A light snack sufficed for lunch.


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The history of individual tribal groups is kept by means of narratives, songs and chants, hence the importance of music, story and poetry. Oratory, the making of speeches, is especially important in the rituals of encounter, and it is regarded as important for a speaker to include allusions to traditional narrative and to a complex system of proverbial sayings, called whakataukī.


Formal speeches are delivered at marae, and as the orator speaks, he re-enacts portions of the Māori creation story when Tāne separated the earth (his mother) from the sky (his father), thus allowing himself and his siblings to see light. During the oration, this re-enactment represents light (or understanding) coming to the people.


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In some cases, guests to a marae may spend the night. When this happens, the hosts provide mattresses on the floor, but no beds. Everyone sleeps in a common room, and the guests are not separated by gender.


It is considered ''very'' bad manners to step over the body of a sleeping person. Stepping over a person's head is absolutely forbidden, as a person's head is considered the most ''tapu'' (sacred) part of a person.


The Māori also observe customs to determine where guests and hosts sleep. The guests sleep in the tapu part of the house, which is located along the right wall as one enters the building. Hosts sleep on the ''noa'' (common) side which is on the left. Further, the chief among the visitors will sleep in the corner near a window, and visitors are ordered in a way which is related to the order in which they speak.


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Of the Māori who claim a religion, 98% today identify themselves as Christian. The largest denominations in the 2006 census were Anglicans (about 14% of the population), Catholics (about 12%), Presbyterians (about 9%), and Methodists (about 3%). Around 5% of the population identified themselves as Christian without associating themselves with any particular denomination.


For the purposes of this requirement though, we will not consider these as "Māori" religions, as they were introduced by the Europeans. "The" two Māori religions in use today could arguably be the original Māori religion practiced before the Europeans arrived, and Ratana.

====Māori Religion==== 
Traditional Māori religion, that is, the pre-European belief system of the Māori, was little modified from that of their tropical Eastern Polynesian homeland (Hawaiki Nui), conceiving of everything, including natural elements and all living things as connected by common descent through whakapapa or genealogy. Accordingly, all things were thought of as possessing a life force or mauri. As an illustration of this concept of connectedness through genealogy, consider a few of the major personifications of pre-contact times: Tangaroa was the personification of the ocean and the ancestor or origin of all fish; Tāne was the personification of the forest and the origin of all birds; and Rongo was the personification of peaceful activities and agriculture and the ancestor of cultivation.


Certain practices are followed that relate to traditional concepts like tapu. Certain people and objects contain mana - spiritual power or essence. In earlier times, tribal members of a higher rank would not touch objects which belonged to members of a lower rank. This was considered "pollution" and persons of a lower rank could not touch the belongings of a highborn person without putting themselves at risk of death.


Tapu can be interpreted as "sacred", as "spiritual restriction" or "implied prohibition"; it involves rules and prohibitions. There are two kinds of tapu, the private (relating to individuals) and the public tapu (relating to communities). A person, an object or a place, which is tapu, may not be touched by human contact, in some cases, not even approached. A person, object or a place could be made sacred by tapu for a certain time.


In pre-contact society, tapu was one of the strongest forces in Māori life. A violation of tapu could have dire consequences, including the death of the offender through sickness or at the hands of someone affected by the offence. In earlier times food cooked for a person of high rank was tapu, and could not be eaten by an inferior. A chief's house was tapu, and even the chief could not eat food in the interior of his house. Not only were the houses of people of high rank perceived to be tapu, but also their possessions including their clothing. Burial grounds and places of death were always tapu, and these areas were often surrounded by a protective fence.

====Ratana==== 
The Ratana movement is a Māori religion and pan-tribal political movement founded by Tahupotiki Wiremu Ratana in early 20th century New Zealand. The Ratana Church has its headquarters at the settlement of Ratana, near Wanganui.


The first decades of the twentieth century were a low point for Māori, both in numbers and in spirit. During the nineteenth century, Māori lost their tribal way of life, lands, traditional religion and their mana. Christianity had been accepted, but the missionaries had acted as chaplains to the colonial forces fighting against their Christian converts who were defending their land. Many Māori regarded the missionary clergy as agents of the Government in a deep-laid plot to subjugate the Māori people.


From the 1860s, prophets such as Te Ua Haumene, Te Kooti, Te Whiti o Rongomai and Tohu Kakahi put the words of the Bible into terms Māori could understand. The dislocation of colonialism had strained Māori society and led to a belief in a saviour to come.


In 1918, Tahupotiki Wiremu Ratana saw a vision, which he regarded as divinely inspired, asking him to preach the gospel to the Māori people, to destroy the power of the tohunga and to cure the spirits and bodies of his people. Until 1924, he preached to increasingly large numbers of Māori, and T.W. Ratana established a name for himself as the "Māori Miracle Man". Initially, the movement was seen as a Christian revival but it soon moved away from mainstream churches. On 31 May 1925, Te Haahi Ratana (The Ratana Church) was formally established as a separate church, with its founder acknowledged as Te Mangai or the mouthpiece of God. Hostile attitudes have caused the church to be guarded towards its teaching and founder.


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[[Image:WahineTane.jpg|right|260px|thumb|right|Papa and Rangi held each other in a tight embrace]] In Māori mythology the primal couple Rangi and Papa (or Ranginui and Papatuanuku) appear in a creation myth explaining the origin of the world.


Rangi and Papa are the primordial parents, the sky father and the earth mother who lie locked together in a tight embrace. They have many children all of which are male, who are forced to live in the cramped darkness between them. These children grow and discuss among themselves what it would be like to live in the light. Tūmatauenga, the fiercest of the children, proposes that the best solution to their predicament is to kill their parents.


But his brother Tāne (or Tāne-mahuta) disagrees, suggesting that it is better to push them apart, to let Rangi (their father) be as a stranger to them in the sky above while Papa (their mother) will remain below to nurture them. The others put their plans into action—Rongo, the god of cultivated food, tries to push his parents apart, then Tangaroa, the god of the sea, and his sibling Haumia-tiketike, the god of wild food, join him. In spite of their joint efforts Rangi and Papa remain close together in their loving embrace. After many attempts Tāne, god of forests and birds, forces his parents apart. Instead of standing upright and pushing with his hands as his brothers have done, he lies on his back and pushes with his strong legs. Stretching every sinew Tāne pushes and pushes until, with cries of grief and surprise, Ranginui and Papatuanuku are forced apart.


And so the children of Rangi and Papa see light and have space to move for the first time. While the other children have agreed to the separation Tāwhirimātea, the god of storms and winds, is angered that the parents have been torn apart. He cannot not bear to hear the cries of his parents nor see the tears of the Rangi as they are parted, he promises his siblings that from henceforth they will have to deal with his anger. He flies off to join Rangi and there carefully fosters his own many offspring who include the winds, one of whom is sent to each quarter of the compass. To fight his brothers, Tāwhirimātea gathers an army of his children—winds and clouds of different kinds, including fierce squalls, whirlwinds, gloomy thick clouds, fiery clouds, hurricane clouds and thunderstorm clouds, and rain, mists and fog. As these winds show their might the dust flies and the great forest trees of Tāne are smashed under the attack and fall to the ground, food for decay and for insects.


Then Tāwhirimātea attacks the oceans and huge waves rise, whirlpools form, and Tangaroa, the god of the sea, flees in panic. Punga, a son of Tangaroa, has two children, Ikatere father of fish, and Tu-te-wehiwehi (or Tu-te-wanawana) the ancestor of reptiles. Terrified by Tāwhirimātea’s onslaught the fish seek shelter in the sea and the reptiles in the forests. Ever since Tangaroa has been angry with Tāne for giving refuge to his runaway children. So it is that Tāne supplies the descendants of Tūmatauenga with canoes, fishhooks and nets to catch the descendants of Tangaroa. Tangaroa retaliates by swamping canoes and sweeping away houses, land and trees that are washed out to sea in floods.


Tāwhirimātea next attacks his brothers Rongo and Haumia-tiketike, the gods of cultivated and uncultivated foods. Rongo and Haumia are in great fear of Tāwhirimātea but, as he attacks them, Papa determines to keep these for her other children and hides them so well that Tāwhirimātea cannot find them. So Tāwhirimātea turns on his brother Tūmatauenga. He uses all his strength but Tūmatauenga stands fast and Tāwhirimatea cannot prevail against him. Tū (or humankind) stands fast and, at last, the anger of the gods subsided and peace prevailed.


Tū thought about the actions of Tāne in separating their parents and made snares to catch the birds, the children of Tāne who could no longer fly free. He then makes nets from forest plants and casts them in the sea so that the children of Tangaroa soon lie in heaps on the shore. He made hoes to dig the ground, capturing his brothers Rongo and Haumia-tiketike where they have hidden from Tāwhirimātea in the bosom of the earth mother and, recognising them by their long hair that remains above the surface of the earth, he drags them forth and heaps them into baskets to be eaten. So Tūmatauenga eats all of his brothers to repay them for their cowardice; the only brother that Tūmatauenga does not subdue is Tāwhirimātea, whose storms and hurricanes attack humankind to this day.


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;before 1893: Maui Pomare, a Māori youth is baptized as a Seventh-day Adventist in Napier.
;1893: Pomare travels to the U.S. to study medicine at the Seventh-day Adventist Church medical college at Battle Creek, Michigan.
;1895: Pomare publishes a pamphlet in the Māori language arguing that the seventh day is the Sabbath.
;1900: Pomare returns to New Zealand and was selected to serve as Māori Health Officer in the Department of Health. In this role he undertook a number of major campaigns to improve Māori health and met with considerable success. He eventually leaves the Adventist Church.
;1902: First Adventist school opens in New Zealand at Ponsonby
;1903: Adventist school opened in Christschurch. Both schools fail due to lack of resources.
;1903-1905: Adventist schools opened in Napier, Lower Hutt, Petone and New Plymouth.
;1908: School opened near Cambridge and named "Pukekura", Māori for "I love the place."
;1913: Pukekura relocated to its current site at Longburn Adventist College near Palmerston North.
;next 100 years?


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In the book ''Tikanga Māori'' Hirini Moko Mead describes the Māori attitude to religion this way:
{|border=1 cellspacing=1 cellpadding=5 align=center
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|style="background:#ffffc0"|
:''The concept of tapu is an important element in all tikange. The source of''
:''tapu goes to the heart of Māori religious thought and even though a majority''
:''of Māori are members of some Christian church or sect the notion of tapu''
:''holds. It is not really a matter of choosing one religion over another.''
:''Rather it has to do with integrating different philosophies and making an ''
:''attempt at reconciling apparent contradictions.''
<p>
:::'''— Hirini Moko Mead'''
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===Tukutuku=== 
A tukutuku is a woven wall hanging traditionally made from flax. New Zealand flax describes common New Zealand perennial plants ''Phormium tenax'' and ''Phormium cookianum'', known by the Māori names harakeke and wharariki respectively. They are quite distinct from ''Linum usitatissimum'', the Northern Hemisphere plant known as flax (and also known as linseed). The genus was given the common name 'flax' by Anglophone Europeans as it too could be used for its fibres.



{{TODO|Add instruction for making a tukutuku panel|Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book}}


Tukutuku panels are a traditional Māori art form. They are decorative wall panels that were once part of the traditional wall construction used inside meeting houses. Originally tukutuku were made by creating a latticework of vertically and horizontally placed dried stalks of kākaho, the creamy-gold flower stalks of toetoe grass, and kākaka, long straight fern stalks, or wooden laths of rimu or tōtara, called variously kaho tara, kaho tarai or arapaki.


These panels were lashed or stitched together. This was done by people working in pairs from either side, using the rich yellow strands of pīngao, white bleached or black-dyed kiekie, and sometimes harakeke, to create a range of intricate and artistic patterns. Stitches were combined to form a variety of patterns. Groups of single stitches created patterns such as tapuae kautuku, waewae pakura, whakarua kopito and papakirango. Some of the traditional cross stitched patterns are poutama, waharua, purapura whetu or mangaroa, kaokao, pātikitiki, roimata toroa and niho taniwha. In some situations, a central vertical stake, tumatahuki, was lashed to the panel to aid its strength and stability.


This method of construction created a warm, insulating type of decorative wallboard. Later, painted wooden slats or half-rounds were used for the horizontal element. Today, however, such dry flammable wallboards would fail to meet modern building regulations, and they are no longer used in construction. When used nowadays, tukutuku panels are created for their aesthetic appeal and attached to structurally approved building materials.

===Tipare=== 
A tipare is a headband woven from flax. You can make one from paper if you do not have access to flax, or you could use any broad-leaved grass. These instructions are adapted from those written by Catherine Brown in [http://teaohou.natlib.govt.nz/journals/teaohou/issue/Mao52TeA/c11.html an article written in 1965]. If using flax, run the length of the flax over the blade of a knife to soften it up. To make a tipare from paper, start by cutting it into strips 1 cm wide. You might want to practice on paper before trying this in flax, but that's up to you. The tipare illustrated below was made in paper (with the edges marked) to make it easier to understand the photos.


{|border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=1
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|[[Image:Tipare_621.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] Mark a 60° angle on one strip, not in the center, but off to either side. Fold the strip into a V along the 60° line with the left side over the right. This angle is critical, so make it as close to 60° as you can. Place a second strip in the bottom of the V as shown, but do not center it in the notch of the V. If you make the V fold in the center or center the second strip on the notch, the two ends of the strip will run out at the same time and you will have two splices in the same vicinity. Offsetting them from the center avoids this problem.
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|[[Image:Tipare_622.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] Fold the right side of the horizontal strip behind the right leg of the V so that it lies parallel to the left leg of the V. If the 60° angle was folded properly, the second strip should fall right into place. If it does not, check the angle of that first fold again.
|}
{|border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=1
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[[Image:Tipare_623.jpg|thumb|300px|left]][[Image:Tipare_624.jpg|thumb|300px|right]]
Fold the other horizontal strip over the left leg of the V so that it runs along and parallel to the right leg of the V. Tuck it beneath the second strip it crosses. You should end up with a double-V, consisting of two outer legs and two inner. The rest of the weaving process will always begin with one of the outer legs. Choosing which is perhaps the most difficult part of making a tipare, but for now, choose the one on the right and fold it behind the V as shown on the right. Make sure that it goes behind two strips and over the third.
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|
[[Image:Tipare_625.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] Now take that same strip and fold it around the back of the strip it was just tucked in front of. Weave it in front of the adjacent strip.
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[[Image:Tipare_626.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] Fold the strip farthest to the left behind the tipare, and weave it in front of the strip farthest to the right.
|}
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[[Image:Tipare_627.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] Fold that same strip behind the right-most strip and weave it in front of the next. The next step is to take one of the outer strips and fold it into a horizontal position, but which strip? As you make a tipare, this will be the question that vexes you after every fold, and if you get it wrong, the tipare will come out wrong as well. Look at the photo to the left. If you fold the strip on the left, you will continue the edge made along the left side. If you fold the strip on the right, you will form a point on the right side. Always choose the strip that will form a point.
|}
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|
[[Image:Tipare_628.jpg|thumb|300px|left]][[Image:Tipare_629.jpg|thumb|300px|right]] There — we have chosen the strip that will form a point and have folded it horizontally. It was woven over the front of the outer strip on the other side and then folded around it and woven again.
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|
[[Image:Tipare_631.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] But now we've run out of strip. Cut the strip along the edge of the tipare, and cut the tip of a new strip off at the same angle. The ends of these two strips are positioned next to the pieces from which they were cut. Discard them.
|}
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|
[[Image:Tipare_632.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] Now tuck the new strip into the weave, pushing it in until it stops. You should be able to push it in pretty far. There is no need for glue or any other sort of adhesive. The weave itself will hold the strip in place. Continue weaving until you have a long enough piece of tipare to wrap around the head of the intended tipare wearer.
|}
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|
[[Image:Tipare_633.jpg|thumb|300px|left]][[Image:Tipare_634.jpg|thumb|300px|right]]Bend the tipare around forming a loop. Line up the beginning of the tipare with the points on the unwoven end (photo on the left). Fold the next strip on the unwoven end around the beginning, cut it to length, and tuck it into the weave (photo on the right).
|}
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|
[[Image:Tipare_636.jpg|thumb|300px|left]][[Image:Tipare_641.jpg|thumb|300px|right]] Continue weaving the loose ends into the tipare, cutting them off at the proper length and tucking them into the weave. When the last strip is woven into place, the tipare is finished. Crown the recipient.
|}

===Mats and Baskets=== 
{{TODO|Add instruction for making a mat or basket|Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book}}
[[Image:flax basket & lid.jpg|thumb|left|Flax basket & lid]]
[[Image:Flax flower.jpg|thumb|right|Woven flax flower]]

====Preparations==== 


;Harvesting:
Flax should be cut in a certain way. Traditional weavers were conservationists — they looked after the flax plant from its growth, after harvesting, and through the whole process of usage. Māori treasure the flax plant, presumably because it was a major resource for them for many things. Never cut the center (baby blade), nor the two on either side - (mother and father). Cutting these blades will kill the plant. Return all unused flax (harekeke) and wastage to the plant cut up as mulch. Don't harvest in the rain or the flax will shrink too much after use When cutting the flax make sure you cut on an angle. This is to make sure that rain and debris does not settle in the roots and spoil the plant. Keep the flax usable for a few days by placing ends in a bucket of water as soon as you return home. Keep it out of the direct sun. To keep it longer boil it as described in the ''Dying Flax'' section below.


;Tools:
A steel bar or using the back or blunt side of a butter knife is used to soften the strips. Traditionally a mussel shell was used. The shell or blunt edge is pulled along the dull side of the flax blade and this also helps release the moisture content. Flax woven articles do shrink to a beautiful golden colour as they dry. Flax is used green or is softened by boiling as described below. Using boiled flax reduces the shrinkage in the finished article.


;Dying Flax:
Bring a pot of water to a boil, and add your flax, prepared as above in the ''Tools'' section. Boil the flax for 5 minutes and then dry it. This can be kept for later use or dyed whenever you are ready. Fill a sink or bucket with warm water and put the boiled, dry flax in the water to soften it. You can now weave with it or dye it. Use a large pot and fill two thirds with water and then add the dye to the boiling water. The amount used is up to the weaver. Return it to a boil. Finally, place your softened flax into the dye - use rubber gloves. Once the right colour is obtained, add a good handful of salt. This will set the dye or ''fix'' it to the flax fibres. Allow the dyed flax to dry, but not in the direct sun. Once it is dry you can then go through the process to soften it and weave it. If you use it straight after dying you will need to wear disposable gloves unless you want your hands to be dyed as well. But once it has dryed it will set the dye. Some people use vinegar to fix the dye. For the dye itself you can use cordial drink concentrates (Thriftee and Koolaid are brands available in New Zealand and they don't need a fixer as the citric acid in the drink concentrate and set the dye). You can mix these colours to get the one you want.


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In the Māori language, speakers distinguish correct use of the number of people referred to in all aspects of the language. For example, everyday greetings take different forms depending on the number of people greeted:


* Tēnā koe: hello (to one person)
* Tēnā kōrua: hello (to two people)
* Tēnā koutou: hello (to more than two people


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[[Image:Powhiri, USAF.jpg|thumb|right|A U.S. airman and a Māori warrior exchange a Hongi during a Pōwhiri ceremony]]
A '''Hongi''' is a traditional Māori greeting in New Zealand. It is done by pressing one's nose to another person at an encounter.


It is still used at traditional meetings among members of the Māori people and on major ceremonies.


In the hongi, the ha or breath of life is exchanged and intermingled.


Through the exchange of this physical greeting, you are no longer considered manuhiri (visitor) but rather tangata whenua, one of the people of the land. For the remainder of your stay you are obliged to share in all the duties and responsibilities of the home people. In earlier times, this may have meant bearing arms in times of war, or tending crops of kumara (sweet potato).


When Māori greet one another by pressing noses, the tradition of sharing the breath of life is considered to have come directly from the gods.


In Māori folklore, woman was created by the god Tane moulding her shape out of the earth. Then Tane (meaning male) embraced the figure and breathed into her nostrils. She then sneezed and came to life. Her name was Hineahuone (earth formed woman). Tane later had a child with her and when she found out he was her father she fled to the underworld where she was believed to look after the spirits of the dead.


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====Māori Stick Game==== 
In the Māori stick game, the participants sit in a circle and each person holds two sticks Music begins, and the sticks are then rhythmically rapped on the floor or tapped together in beat with the music. See http://www.uen.org/Lessonplan/preview.cgi?LPid=13919 for more details.

====Poi==== 
[[File:Feuerpois02.JPG|thumb|200px|Fire poi in action (long exposure)]]
Poi is a form of juggling or object manipulation employing a ball suspended from a length of rope which is held in hand and swung in circular patterns, comparable to club-twirling. Poi spinning originated with the Māori people of New Zealand (the word poi means "ball" in Māori) as a means of promoting increased flexibility, strength, and coordination -in particular, the dexterity of the wrist- and as an exercise of movements central to the use of hand weapons, including the patu, mere, and kotiate.


Some popular poi tricks include: reels, weaves, fountains, crossers, windmills, butterflies, stalls, and wraps. Split time and split direction moves are possible, and some of the more difficult moves require a considerable amount of manual dexterity, coordination and forearm strength to accomplish.


There are several basic classes of trick. The two poi are usually spun in parallel planes, and can be spun in the same direction (weaves) or opposite directions (butterflies). Moves such as stalls and wraps can change direction of one (or both poi) to change between these two classes.
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====Flying Kites==== 
Māori people were experts a building and flying kites. Kites were made from the flower stalks of toetoe grass (''Cortaderia fulvida'') and decorated with shells (such as the abalone), feathers, and foliage. Some kites were big enough to carry a person, and these were sometimes used to lift warriors over the walls of enemy defences.

====Puppetry==== 
The Māori made Karetao (puppets) to use in story-telling. The Karetao were carved figures featuring a handle at the bottom (and held by one hand) and movable arms attached to strings (operated by the other hand).

====Other Games==== 
Other games include
*Spinning Tops
*Wrestling
*Throwing Darts
*Memorization Games


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====String Figures==== 
String figures are designs made on the hands and fingers using a piece of string tied into a circle. In the west, an example of this would be the ''cat in the cradle''.


For instruction on making several Māori string figures, see
http://www.tki.org.nz/r/hpe/exploring_te_ao_kori/stringgames/index_e.php

====Stilts==== 
[[Image:WSJ2007 TerraVille Stilts.JPG|thumb|300px]]
Stilts are long poles with foot pegs mounted to them. The stilt-walker stands on the pegs, and the poles extend upwards past the shoulders. The walker wraps his arms around the poles and as he lifts his left foot, uses his left hand to lift the pole. The foot pegs are often movable, and it is best to learn to walk with stilts with the pegs set low to the ground. As the Pathfinder develops skill, the foot pegs can be raised.


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{{AY Honors/Problematic requirement
|This honor originated in the SPD, targeted a New Zealand Pathfinders who could visit a pa site with reasonable ease. When accepted by the GC is was not modified to reflect the goal of making all honors accessible to all Pathfinders.
|Visit an old pa site in your locality (if you live in New Zealand) or watch a documentary about an old pa site or the New Zealand Wars (if you live elsewhere) and make a brief written report on what you could see.
}}


The word '''pā''' (pronounced pah) refers to a Māori village, generally one from the 19th century or earlier that was fortified for defence. In Māori society, a great pā represented the mana of a tribal group, as personified by a chief or rangatira.


Nearly all pā were built in defensible locations to protect dwelling sites or gardens, almost always on prominent, raised ground which was then terraced; as for example in the Auckland region, where dormant volcanic cones were used. While built for defence, many were also primarily residential, and often quite extensive.


Māori pā played a significant role in the New Zealand Land Wars, though they are known from earlier periods of Māori history. They were mostly absent, however, until around 500 years ago, suggesting scarcity of resources through environmental damage and population pressure began to bring about warfare, leading to a period of pā building.

===Fortification=== 
[[Image:Mt Eden terraces.JPG|thumb|right|Terraces on Mt Eden, Auckland, marking the sites of the defensive palisades and ditches of this former pā.]]


Their main defence was the use of earth ramparts (or terraced hillsides), topped with stakes or wicker barriers. The historically later versions were constructed by people who were fighting with muskets and hand weapons (such as spear, taiaha and mere) against the British Army and armed constabulary, who were armed with swords, rifles, and heavy weapons such as howitzers and rocket artillery.


Pā were often put in place in very limited time scales, sometimes less than two days, and resisted attack for many hours and, sometimes, weeks. Military historians like John Keegan have noted that Māori recognition of the strong resistance of earth fortifications against modern weapons (especially artillery) predates the successful defensive use of trenches and sloped earth ramparts in World War I by many decades.


Warrior chiefs like Te Ruki Kawiti realised these properties as a good counter to the greater firepower of the British. With that in mind, they sometimes built pā purposefully to resist the British Empire's forces, like at Ruapekapeka, which was constructed specifically to draw the enemy, instead of protecting a specific site or place of habitation like more traditional pās. At the Battle of Ruapekapeka, the British suffered 45 casualties, against only 30 amongst the Māori. Afterwards, British engineers twice surveyed the fortifications, produced a scale model and tabled the plans in the House of Commons.


The fortifications of such a purpose-built pa included palisades of puriri trunks and split timber, with bundles of protective flax padding, the two lines of palisade covering a firing trench with individual pits, while more defenders could use the second palisade to fire over the heads of the first below. Simple communication trenches or tunnels were also built to connect the various parts, as found at Ohaeawai Pā or Ruapekapeka. The forts could even include underground bunkers, protected by a thick layer of earth over wooden beams, which sheltered the inhabitants during periods of heavy shelling by artillery.


A limiting factor of the Māori fortifications that were not built as set pieces, however, was the need for the people inhabiting them to leave frequently to cultivate areas for food, or to gather it from the wilderness. Consequently, pā would often be abandoned for 4 to 6 months of each year.

===Examples=== 
The old pā remains found on Maungakiekie/One Tree Hill, New Zealand, close to the center of Auckland, represent one of the largest known sites as well as one of the largest pre-historic earthworks fortifications known worldwide.


The word pā can refer to any Māori village or defensive settlement, but often refers to hill forts – fortified settlements with palisades and defensive terraces – and also to fortified villages. Pā are mainly in the North Island of New Zealand, north of Lake Taupo. Over 5000 sites have been located, photographed and examined although few have been subject to detailed analysis.


For more details, start with [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%81|this article].


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==References== 
* [http://history-nz.org/kite.html Māori Kites]
* [http://www.maori.org.nz/Tikanga/default.asp?pid=sp45&parent=42 Tangihanga procedures]
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=gemgFqF831QC&pg=PA72&lpg=PA72&dq=maori+mealtime+customs&source=bl&ots=iVvnj6Y5hM&sig=U_hTRfsLLKZvRT1K1v4lYC9DcKo&hl=en&ei=wkufSei3PN-BtwfVwMGODQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA38,M1 Maori Symbolism]
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=XXa3fXxLshMC&pg=PA98&lpg=PA98&dq=maori+sleeping+customs&source=bl&ots=ANX0VOoNy2&sig=wxOIIfeyEEVPrXmP3dEUFch8Yi8&hl=en&ei=g-2xSc22O4_ftgfY3cDEBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=7&ct=result#PPA99,M1 Tikanga Māori], by Sidney M. Mead, Hirini Moko Mead
* [http://spd.adventistconnect.org/education-history-statistics Adventist Connect - Education History]
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=y9l93XMRljwC&pg=PA305&lpg=PA305&dq=adventist+maori+story&source=bl&ots=r1mYKdoFss&sig=i1g8X9I2XK9vpdEZsQMEw1FYNlo&hl=en&ei=t9O5Sa3qBJGgM-XGjbII&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result#PPA107,M1 May the People Live], by Raeburn Lange.


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[[Image:Marae, Raiatea 2.jpg|thumb|390px|Taputapuātea, an ancient marae at Ra'iātea in the Society Islands, restored in 1994.]]A '''marae''' is a sacred place which served both religious and social purposes in pre-Christian Polynesian societies and in some modern Polynesian societies, such as Māori, today. In all these languages, the word also means "cleared, free of weeds, trees, etc." It generally consists of an area of cleared land roughly rectangular (the marae itself), bordered with stones or wooden posts (called ''au'' in Tahitian and Cook Islands Māori) perhaps with terraces (''paepae'') which were used in olden times for ceremonial purposes; and with a central stone ''ahu'' or ''a'u'' (sometimes as in the Rapanui culture's ahu on Easter Island "ahu" becomes a synonym for the whole marae complex).


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A Pōwhiri is a Māori welcoming ceremony involving speeches, dancing, singing and hongi. It can be performed both to welcome guests onto a marae or during other ceremonies, such as during a dedication of a building (where the performers might welcome the owners or future users of the building). A pōwhiri is not performed for every group of manuhiri (visitors). It is often reserved for special visitors or for tupapaku (the arrival of the body of the deceased) for a tangihanga (funeral). However, powhiri are also often performed for tourist groups as part of special events.
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'''Karakia''' is the Māori word for incantations and prayers. Karakia are generally used to ensure a favourable outcome of important undertakings. They are also considered a formal greeting when beginning a ceremony. According to legend, in the village of Ruatoria, there was a curse on the Waiapu River which was lifted when Hori Keeti performed Karakia.


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''Mate'' means "death" in Māori. "Ka Mate" is a Māori ''haka'' composed by Te Rauparaha, war leader of the Ngāti Toa tribe of the North Island of New Zealand:
the main body of the haka:


{| class="wikitable"
|--
|Ka mate, ka mate! ka ora! ka ora!
Ka mate! ka mate! ka ora! ka ora!


Tēnei te tangata pūhuruhuru


Nāna nei i tiki mai whakawhiti te rā


Ā, upane! ka upane!


Ā, upane, ka upane, whiti te ra!
|’Tis death! ‘tis death! ''(or: I may die)'' ’Tis life! ‘tis life! ''(or: I may live)''
’Tis death! ‘tis death! ’Tis life! ‘tis life!


This the hairy man that stands here...


…who brought the sun and caused it to shine


A step upward, another step upward!


A step upward, another... the Sun shines!
|}


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Waiata is the Māori word for song.


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Kōrero is the spoken word. Māori is a culture based on Kōrero, the oral tradition. Māori place as much importance on the spoken word as Western cultures place on the written word. In the Western world, people are bound by written contracts and laws are written down before they may come into effect. In Māori, Kōrero is binding.


[http://www.maori.org.nz/Tikanga/default.asp?pid=sp100&parent=95 www.maori.org.nz].


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[[Image:MaoriWardanceKahuroa.jpg|thumb|260px|The haka is a traditional genre of Māori dance. This depiction of a haka as a war dance dates from ca. 1845.]]
A haka is a traditional dance form. It is a posture dance with shouted accompaniment, performed by a group. Although the use of a haka by the ''All Blacks'' (a rugby team) has made one type of haka familiar, it has led to misconceptions. Haka are not exclusively war dances, nor are they only performed by men. Some are performed by women, others by mixed groups, and some simple haka are performed by children. Haka are performed for various reasons: for amusement, as a hearty welcome to distinguished guests, or to acknowledge great achievements or occasions. War haka, which had their own term, 'peruperu', were originally performed by warriors before a battle, proclaiming their strength and prowess in order to intimidate the opposition. Today, haka constitute an integral part of formal or official welcome ceremonies for distinguished visitors or foreign dignitaries, serving to impart a sense of the importance of the occasion.


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''Kuia'' (also ''kui'') is the Māori word for "grandmother".


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In the Māori language, ''Tāne'' means "man".


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In the Māori language, ''Wero'' means "challenge". At the beginning of a Powhiri, the people must first determine if the visitors have peaceful intentions or not. This is done through the wero which literally means "to cast a spear." The warriors performing the wero will make frightening gestures with spears. Once the challenge is complete, the warriors will guide the visitors to the marae where they will be welcomed by the women and children.


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In Polynesian culture (for example, Hawaiian and Māori), mana is a spiritual quality considered to have supernatural origin – a sacred impersonal force existing in the universe. Therefore to have ''mana'' is to have influence and authority, and efficacy – the power to perform in a given situation. This essential quality of ''mana'' is not limited to persons – peoples, governments, places and inanimate objects can possess ''mana''. In Hawaiian, ''mana loa'' means "great power". People or objects that possess ''mana'' are accorded "respect"; because their possession of ''mana'' gives them "authority", "power", and "prestige". In Māori, a tribe that has ''mana whenua'' is considered to have demonstrated their authority over a given piece of land or territory. The word’s meaning is complex because ''mana'' is a basic foundation of the Polynesian worldview.


The magazine ''Māori Law Review'' suggests two essential aspects to a Māori person's ''mana'':


* ''mana tangata'', authority derived from ''whakapapa'' connections, and
* ''mana huaanga'', defined as "authority derived from having a wealth of resources to gift to others to bind them into reciprocal obligations".


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Manuhiri are visitors. Locals and visitors have to respect certain rules, especially during the rituals of encounter. This is when the phrase tāngata whenua (people of the land) comes into play. Should a group of people come to stay on a marae, they are considered manuhiri (guests) while the owners of the marae are known as tāngata whenua. Should other groups of manuhiri arrive, the manuhiri who arrived previously - regardless of their race - are considered tāngata whenua for the purposes of formally welcoming the new group. When Māori refer to themselves as tāngata whenua this is not done solely to emphasise their indigenous status, as is often assumed, because the connotation in Māori of the phrase is one not of separation but rather of welcome and inclusion.


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A '''Hongi''' is a traditional Māori greeting in New Zealand. It is done by pressing one's nose to another person at an encounter. See below.


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A hui is a New Zealand Māori social gathering or assembly in a Māori community.


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Poroporoaki is the final farewell during a ''powhiri''. When the poroporoaki is concluded, the ''mana'' returns to the host. It is a solemn occasion during which the people reflect on the welcome they have received, and recognize that they may not experience another ''powhiri'' before their death.


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Whānau is a Māori-language word for extended family. Other meanings, though less commonly used in English, are to give birth, or genus.


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Tangi is a Māori funeral rite.


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''Aroha'' can be best translated as "love," but the meaning is deeper than that. The Māori believe that ''Aroha'' is the force that binds the universe together.


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Whakairo is a Māori form of carving. Carvings are made from wood, jade, bone, or basalt.


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''Koro'' is a Māori chief.


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Kaumatua are respected tribal elders of either gender in a Māori community who have been involved with their whānau for a number of years. They are appointed by their people who believe the chosen elders have the capacity to teach and guide both current and future generations.


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''Wahine'' is the Māori word for "woman".


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A Māori word literally meaning "homage" or "respect".


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Whaikorero means "formal speech" or "oration".


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Tangata whenua is a Māori term literally meaning "people of the land", from tangata, 'people' and whenua land. In the context of tribal descent and ownership of land, tangata whenua are the people who descend from the first people to settle the land of the district, whereas the actual mana may reside with later arrivals. However, in the context of a marae, the tangata whenua are the owners of the marae, in contradistinction to the manuhiri or guests. After the welcoming ceremony on a marae, the guests may be afforded the temporary, honorary status of tangata whenua, and may even be invited to participate as locals as the ceremonies continue. In the national context of New Zealand, Māori are the tangata whenua, and in this sense the term is equivalent to 'indigenous'.


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A taonga in Māori culture is a treasured thing, whether tangible or intangible. Tangible examples are all sorts of heirlooms and artefacts, land and fisheries. Intangible examples may include language, spiritual beliefs, radio frequencies and riparian rights.


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[[File:Polynesian Migration.svg|thumb|600px|center|<center>Polynesian migration routes</center>]]


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Various Māori traditions recount how their ancestors set out from a mythical homeland in great ocean-going canoes (or waka). Some of these traditions name the homeland as Hawaiki.


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Various Māori traditions recount how their ancestors set out from a mythical homeland in great ocean-going canoes (or waka). Some of these traditions name the homeland as Hawaiki.


Among these is the story of Kupe, who had eloped with Kuramarotini, the wife of Hoturapa, the owner of the great canoe Matahourua, whom Kupe had murdered. To escape punishment for the murder, Kupe and Kura fled in Matahourua and discovered a land he called Aotearoa ('long-white-cloud'). He explored its coast and killed the sea monster Te Wheke-a-Muturangi, finally returning to his home to spread news of his newly discovered land.


Other stories of various other tribes report migrations to escape famine, over-population, and warfare. These were made in legendary canoes, the best known of which are Aotea, Arawa, Kurahaupō, Mataatua, Tainui, Tākitimu, and Tokomaru. Various traditions name numerous other canoes. Some, including the Āraiteuru, are well known; others including the Kirauta and the sacred Arahura and Mahangaatuamatua are little known. Rather than arriving in a single fleet, the journeys may have occurred over several centuries.


An important early collector and preserver of Māori traditions was the surveyor and ethnologist Stephenson Percy Smith. He believed that while the Polynesian traditions may have been flawed in detail, they preserved the threads of truth which could be recovered using a method already well established for Hawaiian traditions by Fornander (1878-1885). This method involved seeking out common elements of tradition from different sources, and aligning these to genealogies to give a time frame for the events. Abraham Fornander, Smith, and others used this method to reconstruct the migrations of the Polynesians, tracing them back to a supposed ancient homeland in India.


S. Percy Smith used the Fornander method, combining disparate traditions from various parts of New Zealand and other parts of Polynesia, to derive a now discredited version of Māori migration to New Zealand -- the 'Great Fleet' hypothesis. Through an examination of the genealogies of various tribes, he came up with a set of precise dates for his 'Great Fleet' and the explorers that he and others posited as having paved the way for the fleet.


According to Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Smith’s account went as follows. In 750 AD the Polynesian explorer Kupe discovered an uninhabited New Zealand. Then in 1000–1100 AD, the Polynesian explorers Toi and Whātonga visited New Zealand, and found it inhabited by a primitive, nomadic people known as the Moriori. Finally, in 1350 AD a ‘great fleet’ of seven canoes – Aotea, Kurahaupō, Mataatua, Tainui, Tokomaru, Te Arawa and Tākitimu – all departed from the Tahitian region at the same time, bringing the people now known as Māori to New Zealand. These were advanced, warlike, agricultural tribes who destroyed the Moriori." The great fleet scenario won general acceptance, its adherents even including the famous Māori ethnologist Te Rangi Hīroa (Sir Peter Buck), and was taught in New Zealand schools. However it was effectively demolished during the 1960s by the ethnologist David Simmons, who showed that it derived from an incomplete and indiscriminate study of Māori tradition as recorded in the 19th Century. Simmons also suggests that some of these 'migrations' may actually have been journeys within New Zealand.


Historian Rāwiri Taonui, writing in 2006 for the website Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, accuses Smith of falsification: "The Great Fleet theory was the result of a collaboration between the 19th-century ethnologist S. Percy Smith and the Māori scholar Hoani Te Whatahoro Jury. Smith obtained details about places in Rarotonga and Tahiti during a visit in 1897, while Jury provided information about Māori canoes in New Zealand. Smith then ‘cut and pasted’ his material, combining several oral traditions into new ones. Their joint work was published in two books, in which Jury and Smith falsely attributed much of their information to two 19th-century tohunga, Moihi Te Mātorohanga and Nēpia Pōhūhū" (Taonui 2006).


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[[Image:IwiMap.png|Tribal areas of New Zealand]]


These are the seven legendary canoes proposed by historian Stephenson Percy Smith in his "Great Fleet hypothesis." Various traditions name numerous other canoes.


{| class="wikitable"
! '''Name of Canoe'''
! '''Regional Traditions'''
! '''Associated Iwi or Hapu'''
|-
| Aotea || Taranaki, Waikato || Ngā Rauru Kītahi, Ngāti Ruanui
|-
| Te Arawa || Bay of Plenty, East Coast, Waikato || Ngāti Tūwharetoa, Te Arawa
|-
| Kurahaupō || Northland, Taranaki || Ngati Apa, Ngāti Kurī, Ngati Ruanui
|-
| Mataatua || Bay of Plenty, Northland || Ngā Puhi, Ngāi Te Rangi, Ngāti Awa, Ngāti Pūkenga, Te Whakatōhea
|-
| Tainui || Auckland, Bay of Plenty, Taranaki, Waikato || Ngāti Raukawa Ngāti Maniapoto, Ngāti Maru, Ngāti Pāoa, Ngāti Rongoū, Ngāti Tamaterā, Ngāti Whanaunga
|-
| Tākitimu || Bay of Plenty, East Coast, South Island || Muriwhenua, Ngāti Kahungunu, Ngāti Ranginui, Ngāi Tahu
|-
| Tokomaru || Taranaki || Ngati Tama, Ngati Mutunga, Ngati Rāhiri, Manukorihi, Puketapu, Te Atiawa, Ngati Maru
|-
|}


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[[Image:Rangitoto island from north head.jpg|thumb|600px|left|Rangitoto Island as viewed from North Head.]]
Rangitoto Island is a volcanic island in the Hauraki Gulf near Auckland, New Zealand. Rangitoto is Māori for 'Bloody Sky', with the name coming from the full phrase Nga Rangi-i-totongia-a Tama-te-kapua ('The days of the bleeding of Tama-te-kapua').
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A hui can be called for many reasons, including a wedding, birth, funeral, or even a meeting to discuss community decisions.


If you arrive at the marae before the rest of your group, wait for them before entering. Visitors are always welcomed in groups, and to enter all by yourself is a violation of protocol. When your whole group has arrived, you may enter the marae, and you will be welcomed in a powhiri ceremony.


It might be a good idea to bring a small notebook and pen along so you can take notes about what is happening. A hui follows a prescribed structure. If you do not understand everything that happens, ask your host afterwards.


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As described previously, ''mate'' means "death" in Māori.


Tangihanga, or more commonly, Tangi, is a Māori funeral rite. Tangihanga takes place at a marae, and each manuhiri (visiting group) receives a pohiri (formal greeting). Some tribes will not perform a pohiri after dark, so the visitors must arrive before dusk.


A collection is taken up to defray the costs of embalming, to defray the costs of the marae, or both.


On the final night of the tangihanga, people tell stories, sing, and tell jokes to help cheer the grieving family. Burial takes place the following day. After the body is lowered into the grave, people are given an opportunity to say a final farewell. Then everyone present files by the grave and throws in either a flower or a handful of soil.


If the deceased lived near the cemetery, the people go their after the burial and bless the house. Otherwise, this is done sometime later. After the house blessing, a Hakari (final feast) is held, during which people will speak or perform. The Hakari is a celebration and affirmation of life.


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Food was considered communal property among the Māori. It was distributed by an official who was placed in charge of the food warehouse. Communal ownership of food prevented an unlucky fisherman (and his family) from going hungry.


Before contact with Europeans was established, the Māori diet consisted primarily of vegetables, though fish was not an uncommon food. They correctly believed that diet affected health, and that regular bowels were an important aspect of general health.


The Māori ate two meals per day. Breakfast was eaten a few hours after waking, and dinner was eaten in the early evening. A light snack sufficed for lunch.


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The history of individual tribal groups is kept by means of narratives, songs and chants, hence the importance of music, story and poetry. Oratory, the making of speeches, is especially important in the rituals of encounter, and it is regarded as important for a speaker to include allusions to traditional narrative and to a complex system of proverbial sayings, called whakataukī.


Formal speeches are delivered at marae, and as the orator speaks, he re-enacts portions of the Māori creation story when Tāne separated the earth (his mother) from the sky (his father), thus allowing himself and his siblings to see light. During the oration, this re-enactment represents light (or understanding) coming to the people.


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In some cases, guests to a marae may spend the night. When this happens, the hosts provide mattresses on the floor, but no beds. Everyone sleeps in a common room, and the guests are not separated by gender.


It is considered ''very'' bad manners to step over the body of a sleeping person. Stepping over a person's head is absolutely forbidden, as a person's head is considered the most ''tapu'' (sacred) part of a person.


The Māori also observe customs to determine where guests and hosts sleep. The guests sleep in the tapu part of the house, which is located along the right wall as one enters the building. Hosts sleep on the ''noa'' (common) side which is on the left. Further, the chief among the visitors will sleep in the corner near a window, and visitors are ordered in a way which is related to the order in which they speak.


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Of the Māori who claim a religion, 98% today identify themselves as Christian. The largest denominations in the 2006 census were Anglicans (about 14% of the population), Catholics (about 12%), Presbyterians (about 9%), and Methodists (about 3%). Around 5% of the population identified themselves as Christian without associating themselves with any particular denomination.


For the purposes of this requirement though, we will not consider these as "Māori" religions, as they were introduced by the Europeans. "The" two Māori religions in use today could arguably be the original Māori religion practiced before the Europeans arrived, and Ratana.

===Māori Religion=== 
Traditional Māori religion, that is, the pre-European belief system of the Māori, was little modified from that of their tropical Eastern Polynesian homeland (Hawaiki Nui), conceiving of everything, including natural elements and all living things as connected by common descent through whakapapa or genealogy. Accordingly, all things were thought of as possessing a life force or mauri. As an illustration of this concept of connectedness through genealogy, consider a few of the major personifications of pre-contact times: Tangaroa was the personification of the ocean and the ancestor or origin of all fish; Tāne was the personification of the forest and the origin of all birds; and Rongo was the personification of peaceful activities and agriculture and the ancestor of cultivation.


Certain practices are followed that relate to traditional concepts like tapu. Certain people and objects contain mana - spiritual power or essence. In earlier times, tribal members of a higher rank would not touch objects which belonged to members of a lower rank. This was considered "pollution" and persons of a lower rank could not touch the belongings of a highborn person without putting themselves at risk of death.


Tapu can be interpreted as "sacred", as "spiritual restriction" or "implied prohibition"; it involves rules and prohibitions. There are two kinds of tapu, the private (relating to individuals) and the public tapu (relating to communities). A person, an object or a place, which is tapu, may not be touched by human contact, in some cases, not even approached. A person, object or a place could be made sacred by tapu for a certain time.


In pre-contact society, tapu was one of the strongest forces in Māori life. A violation of tapu could have dire consequences, including the death of the offender through sickness or at the hands of someone affected by the offence. In earlier times food cooked for a person of high rank was tapu, and could not be eaten by an inferior. A chief's house was tapu, and even the chief could not eat food in the interior of his house. Not only were the houses of people of high rank perceived to be tapu, but also their possessions including their clothing. Burial grounds and places of death were always tapu, and these areas were often surrounded by a protective fence.

===Ratana=== 
The Ratana movement is a Māori religion and pan-tribal political movement founded by Tahupotiki Wiremu Ratana in early 20th century New Zealand. The Ratana Church has its headquarters at the settlement of Ratana, near Wanganui.


The first decades of the twentieth century were a low point for Māori, both in numbers and in spirit. During the nineteenth century, Māori lost their tribal way of life, lands, traditional religion and their mana. Christianity had been accepted, but the missionaries had acted as chaplains to the colonial forces fighting against their Christian converts who were defending their land. Many Māori regarded the missionary clergy as agents of the Government in a deep-laid plot to subjugate the Māori people.


From the 1860s, prophets such as Te Ua Haumene, Te Kooti, Te Whiti o Rongomai and Tohu Kakahi put the words of the Bible into terms Māori could understand. The dislocation of colonialism had strained Māori society and led to a belief in a saviour to come.


In 1918, Tahupotiki Wiremu Ratana saw a vision, which he regarded as divinely inspired, asking him to preach the gospel to the Māori people, to destroy the power of the tohunga and to cure the spirits and bodies of his people. Until 1924, he preached to increasingly large numbers of Māori, and T.W. Ratana established a name for himself as the "Māori Miracle Man". Initially, the movement was seen as a Christian revival but it soon moved away from mainstream churches. On 31 May 1925, Te Haahi Ratana (The Ratana Church) was formally established as a separate church, with its founder acknowledged as Te Mangai or the mouthpiece of God. Hostile attitudes have caused the church to be guarded towards its teaching and founder.


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[[Image:WahineTane.jpg|right|260px|thumb|right|Papa and Rangi held each other in a tight embrace]] In Māori mythology the primal couple Rangi and Papa (or Ranginui and Papatuanuku) appear in a creation myth explaining the origin of the world.


Rangi and Papa are the primordial parents, the sky father and the earth mother who lie locked together in a tight embrace. They have many children all of which are male, who are forced to live in the cramped darkness between them. These children grow and discuss among themselves what it would be like to live in the light. Tūmatauenga, the fiercest of the children, proposes that the best solution to their predicament is to kill their parents.


But his brother Tāne (or Tāne-mahuta) disagrees, suggesting that it is better to push them apart, to let Rangi (their father) be as a stranger to them in the sky above while Papa (their mother) will remain below to nurture them. The others put their plans into action—Rongo, the god of cultivated food, tries to push his parents apart, then Tangaroa, the god of the sea, and his sibling Haumia-tiketike, the god of wild food, join him. In spite of their joint efforts Rangi and Papa remain close together in their loving embrace. After many attempts Tāne, god of forests and birds, forces his parents apart. Instead of standing upright and pushing with his hands as his brothers have done, he lies on his back and pushes with his strong legs. Stretching every sinew Tāne pushes and pushes until, with cries of grief and surprise, Ranginui and Papatuanuku are forced apart.


And so the children of Rangi and Papa see light and have space to move for the first time. While the other children have agreed to the separation Tāwhirimātea, the god of storms and winds, is angered that the parents have been torn apart. He cannot not bear to hear the cries of his parents nor see the tears of the Rangi as they are parted, he promises his siblings that from henceforth they will have to deal with his anger. He flies off to join Rangi and there carefully fosters his own many offspring who include the winds, one of whom is sent to each quarter of the compass. To fight his brothers, Tāwhirimātea gathers an army of his children—winds and clouds of different kinds, including fierce squalls, whirlwinds, gloomy thick clouds, fiery clouds, hurricane clouds and thunderstorm clouds, and rain, mists and fog. As these winds show their might the dust flies and the great forest trees of Tāne are smashed under the attack and fall to the ground, food for decay and for insects.


Then Tāwhirimātea attacks the oceans and huge waves rise, whirlpools form, and Tangaroa, the god of the sea, flees in panic. Punga, a son of Tangaroa, has two children, Ikatere father of fish, and Tu-te-wehiwehi (or Tu-te-wanawana) the ancestor of reptiles. Terrified by Tāwhirimātea’s onslaught the fish seek shelter in the sea and the reptiles in the forests. Ever since Tangaroa has been angry with Tāne for giving refuge to his runaway children. So it is that Tāne supplies the descendants of Tūmatauenga with canoes, fishhooks and nets to catch the descendants of Tangaroa. Tangaroa retaliates by swamping canoes and sweeping away houses, land and trees that are washed out to sea in floods.


Tāwhirimātea next attacks his brothers Rongo and Haumia-tiketike, the gods of cultivated and uncultivated foods. Rongo and Haumia are in great fear of Tāwhirimātea but, as he attacks them, Papa determines to keep these for her other children and hides them so well that Tāwhirimātea cannot find them. So Tāwhirimātea turns on his brother Tūmatauenga. He uses all his strength but Tūmatauenga stands fast and Tāwhirimatea cannot prevail against him. Tū (or humankind) stands fast and, at last, the anger of the gods subsided and peace prevailed.


Tū thought about the actions of Tāne in separating their parents and made snares to catch the birds, the children of Tāne who could no longer fly free. He then makes nets from forest plants and casts them in the sea so that the children of Tangaroa soon lie in heaps on the shore. He made hoes to dig the ground, capturing his brothers Rongo and Haumia-tiketike where they have hidden from Tāwhirimātea in the bosom of the earth mother and, recognising them by their long hair that remains above the surface of the earth, he drags them forth and heaps them into baskets to be eaten. So Tūmatauenga eats all of his brothers to repay them for their cowardice; the only brother that Tūmatauenga does not subdue is Tāwhirimātea, whose storms and hurricanes attack humankind to this day.


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;before 1893: Maui Pomare, a Māori youth is baptized as a Seventh-day Adventist in Napier.
;1893: Pomare travels to the U.S. to study medicine at the Seventh-day Adventist Church medical college at Battle Creek, Michigan.
;1895: Pomare publishes a pamphlet in the Māori language arguing that the seventh day is the Sabbath.
;1900: Pomare returns to New Zealand and was selected to serve as Māori Health Officer in the Department of Health. In this role he undertook a number of major campaigns to improve Māori health and met with considerable success. He eventually leaves the Adventist Church.
;1902: First Adventist school opens in New Zealand at Ponsonby
;1903: Adventist school opened in Christchurch. Both schools fail due to lack of resources.
;1903-1905: Adventist schools opened in Napier, Lower Hutt, Petone and New Plymouth.
;1908: School opened near Cambridge and named "Pukekura", Māori for "I love the place."
;1913: Pukekura relocated to its current site at Longburn Adventist College near Palmerston North.
;next 100 years?


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In the book ''Tikanga Māori'' Hirini Moko Mead describes the Māori attitude to religion this way:
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:''The concept of tapu is an important element in all tikange. The source of''
:''tapu goes to the heart of Māori religious thought and even though a majority''
:''of Māori are members of some Christian church or sect the notion of tapu''
:''holds. It is not really a matter of choosing one religion over another. ''
:''Rather it has to do with integrating different philosophies and making an ''
:''attempt at reconciling apparent contradictions.''
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:::'''— Hirini Moko Mead'''
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===Tukutuku=== 
A tukutuku is a woven wall hanging traditionally made from flax. New Zealand flax describes common New Zealand perennial plants ''Phormium tenax'' and ''Phormium cookianum'', known by the Māori names harakeke and wharariki respectively. They are quite distinct from ''Linum usitatissimum'', the Northern Hemisphere plant known as flax (and also known as linseed). The genus was given the common name 'flax' by Anglophone Europeans as it too could be used for its fibres.



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Tukutuku panels are a traditional Māori art form. They are decorative wall panels that were once part of the traditional wall construction used inside meeting houses. Originally tukutuku were made by creating a latticework of vertically and horizontally placed dried stalks of kākaho, the creamy-gold flower stalks of toetoe grass, and kākaka, long straight fern stalks, or wooden laths of rimu or tōtara, called variously kaho tara, kaho tarai or arapaki.


These panels were lashed or stitched together. This was done by people working in pairs from either side, using the rich yellow strands of pīngao, white bleached or black-dyed kiekie, and sometimes harakeke, to create a range of intricate and artistic patterns. Stitches were combined to form a variety of patterns. Groups of single stitches created patterns such as tapuae kautuku, waewae pakura, whakarua kopito and papakirango. Some of the traditional cross stitched patterns are poutama, waharua, purapura whetu or mangaroa, kaokao, pātikitiki, roimata toroa and niho taniwha. In some situations, a central vertical stake, tumatahuki, was lashed to the panel to aid its strength and stability.


This method of construction created a warm, insulating type of decorative wallboard. Later, painted wooden slats or half-rounds were used for the horizontal element. Today, however, such dry flammable wallboards would fail to meet modern building regulations, and they are no longer used in construction. When used nowadays, tukutuku panels are created for their aesthetic appeal and attached to structurally approved building materials.

===Tipare=== 
A tipare is a headband woven from flax. You can make one from paper if you do not have access to flax, or you could use any broad-leaved grass. These instructions are adapted from those written by Catherine Brown in [http://teaohou.natlib.govt.nz/journals/teaohou/issue/Mao52TeA/c11.html an article written in 1965]. If using flax, run the length of the flax over the blade of a knife to soften it up. To make a tipare from paper, start by cutting it into strips 1 cm wide. You might want to practice on paper before trying this in flax, but that's up to you. The tipare illustrated below was made in paper (with the edges marked) to make it easier to understand the photos.


{|border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=1
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|[[Image:Tipare_621.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] Mark a 60° angle on one strip, not in the center, but off to either side. Fold the strip into a V along the 60° line with the left side over the right. This angle is critical, so make it as close to 60° as you can. Place a second strip in the bottom of the V as shown, but do not center it in the notch of the V. If you make the V fold in the center or center the second strip on the notch, the two ends of the strip will run out at the same time and you will have two splices in the same vicinity. Offsetting them from the center avoids this problem.
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|[[Image:Tipare_622.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] Fold the right side of the horizontal strip behind the right leg of the V so that it lies parallel to the left leg of the V. If the 60° angle was folded properly, the second strip should fall right into place. If it does not, check the angle of that first fold again.
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[[Image:Tipare_623.jpg|thumb|300px|left]][[Image:Tipare_624.jpg|thumb|300px|right]]
Fold the other horizontal strip over the left leg of the V so that it runs along and parallel to the right leg of the V. Tuck it beneath the second strip it crosses. You should end up with a double-V, consisting of two outer legs and two inner. The rest of the weaving process will always begin with one of the outer legs. Choosing which is perhaps the most difficult part of making a tipare, but for now, choose the one on the right and fold it behind the V as shown on the right. Make sure that it goes behind two strips and over the third.
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[[Image:Tipare_625.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] Now take that same strip and fold it around the back of the strip it was just tucked in front of. Weave it in front of the adjacent strip.
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[[Image:Tipare_626.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] Fold the strip farthest to the left behind the tipare, and weave it in front of the strip farthest to the right.
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[[Image:Tipare_627.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] Fold that same strip behind the right-most strip and weave it in front of the next. The next step is to take one of the outer strips and fold it into a horizontal position, but which strip? As you make a tipare, this will be the question that vexes you after every fold, and if you get it wrong, the tipare will come out wrong as well. Look at the photo to the left. If you fold the strip on the left, you will continue the edge made along the left side. If you fold the strip on the right, you will form a point on the right side. Always choose the strip that will form a point.
|}
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[[Image:Tipare_628.jpg|thumb|300px|left]][[Image:Tipare_629.jpg|thumb|300px|right]] There — we have chosen the strip that will form a point and have folded it horizontally. It was woven over the front of the outer strip on the other side and then folded around it and woven again.
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[[Image:Tipare_631.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] But now we've run out of strip. Cut the strip along the edge of the tipare, and cut the tip of a new strip off at the same angle. The ends of these two strips are positioned next to the pieces from which they were cut. Discard them.
|}
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[[Image:Tipare_632.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] Now tuck the new strip into the weave, pushing it in until it stops. You should be able to push it in pretty far. There is no need for glue or any other sort of adhesive. The weave itself will hold the strip in place. Continue weaving until you have a long enough piece of tipare to wrap around the head of the intended tipare wearer.
|}
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[[Image:Tipare_633.jpg|thumb|300px|left]][[Image:Tipare_634.jpg|thumb|300px|right]]Bend the tipare around forming a loop. Line up the beginning of the tipare with the points on the unwoven end (photo on the left). Fold the next strip on the unwoven end around the beginning, cut it to length, and tuck it into the weave (photo on the right).
|}
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[[Image:Tipare_636.jpg|thumb|300px|left]][[Image:Tipare_641.jpg|thumb|300px|right]] Continue weaving the loose ends into the tipare, cutting them off at the proper length and tucking them into the weave. When the last strip is woven into place, the tipare is finished. Crown the recipient.
|}

===Mats and Baskets=== 
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[[Image:flax basket & lid.jpg|thumb|left|Flax basket & lid]]
[[Image:Flax flower.jpg|thumb|right|Woven flax flower]]

====Preparations==== 


;Harvesting:
Flax should be cut in a certain way. Traditional weavers were conservationists — they looked after the flax plant from its growth, after harvesting, and through the whole process of usage. Māori treasure the flax plant, presumably because it was a major resource for them for many things. Never cut the center (baby blade), nor the two on either side - (mother and father). Cutting these blades will kill the plant. Return all unused flax (harekeke) and wastage to the plant cut up as mulch. Don't harvest in the rain or the flax will shrink too much after use. When cutting the flax make sure you cut on an angle. This is to make sure that rain and debris does not settle in the roots and spoil the plant. Keep the flax usable for a few days by placing ends in a bucket of water as soon as you return home. Keep it out of the direct sun. To keep it longer boil it as described in the ''Dying Flax'' section below.


;Tools:
A steel bar or using the back or blunt side of a butter knife is used to soften the strips. Traditionally a mussel shell was used. The shell or blunt edge is pulled along the dull side of the flax blade and this also helps release the moisture content. Flax woven articles do shrink to a beautiful golden colour as they dry. Flax is used green or is softened by boiling as described below. Using boiled flax reduces the shrinkage in the finished article.


;Dying Flax:
Bring a pot of water to a boil, and add your flax, prepared as above in the ''Tools'' section. Boil the flax for 5 minutes and then dry it. This can be kept for later use or dyed whenever you are ready. Fill a sink or bucket with warm water and put the boiled, dry flax in the water to soften it. You can now weave with it or dye it. Use a large pot and fill two thirds with water and then add the dye to the boiling water. The amount used is up to the weaver. Return it to a boil. Finally, place your softened flax into the dye - use rubber gloves. Once the right colour is obtained, add a good handful of salt. This will set the dye or ''fix'' it to the flax fibres. Allow the dyed flax to dry, but not in the direct sun. Once it is dry you can then go through the process to soften it and weave it. If you use it straight after dying you will need to wear disposable gloves unless you want your hands to be dyed as well. But once it has dryed it will set the dye. Some people use vinegar to fix the dye. For the dye itself you can use cordial drink concentrates (Thriftee and Koolaid are brands available in New Zealand and they don't need a fixer as the citric acid in the drink concentrate and set the dye). You can mix these colours to get the one you want.


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In the Māori language, speakers distinguish correct use of the number of people referred to in all aspects of the language. For example, everyday greetings take different forms depending on the number of people greeted:


* Tēnā koe: hello (to one person)
* Tēnā kōrua: hello (to two people)
* Tēnā koutou: hello (to more than two people


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[[Image:Powhiri, USAF.jpg|thumb|right|A U.S. airman and a Māori warrior exchange a Hongi during a Pōwhiri ceremony]]
A '''Hongi''' is a traditional Māori greeting in New Zealand. It is done by pressing one's nose to another person at an encounter.


It is still used at traditional meetings among members of the Māori people and on major ceremonies.


In the hongi, the ha or breath of life is exchanged and intermingled.


Through the exchange of this physical greeting, you are no longer considered manuhiri (visitor) but rather tangata whenua, one of the people of the land. For the remainder of your stay you are obliged to share in all the duties and responsibilities of the home people. In earlier times, this may have meant bearing arms in times of war, or tending crops of kumara (sweet potato).


When Māori greet one another by pressing noses, the tradition of sharing the breath of life is considered to have come directly from the gods.


In Māori folklore, woman was created by the god Tane moulding her shape out of the earth. Then Tane (meaning male) embraced the figure and breathed into her nostrils. She then sneezed and came to life. Her name was Hineahuone (earth formed woman). Tane later had a child with her and when she found out he was her father she fled to the underworld where she was believed to look after the spirits of the dead.


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===Māori Stick Game=== 
In the Māori stick game, the participants sit in a circle and each person holds two sticks. Music begins, and the sticks are then rhythmically rapped on the floor or tapped together in beat with the music. See http://www.uen.org/Lessonplan/preview.cgi?LPid=13919 for more details.

===Poi=== 
[[File:Feuerpois02.JPG|thumb|200px|Fire poi in action (long exposure)]]
Poi is a form of juggling or object manipulation employing a ball suspended from a length of rope which is held in hand and swung in circular patterns, comparable to club-twirling. Poi spinning originated with the Māori people of New Zealand (the word poi means "ball" in Māori) as a means of promoting increased flexibility, strength, and coordination -in particular, the dexterity of the wrist- and as an exercise of movements central to the use of hand weapons, including the patu, mere, and kotiate.


Some popular poi tricks include: reels, weaves, fountains, crossers, windmills, butterflies, stalls, and wraps. Split time and split direction moves are possible, and some of the more difficult moves require a considerable amount of manual dexterity, coordination and forearm strength to accomplish.


There are several basic classes of trick. The two poi are usually spun in parallel planes, and can be spun in the same direction (weaves) or opposite directions (butterflies). Moves such as stalls and wraps can change direction of one (or both poi) to change between these two classes.
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===Flying Kites=== 
Māori people were experts a building and flying kites. Kites were made from the flower stalks of toetoe grass (''Cortaderia fulvida'') and decorated with shells (such as the abalone), feathers, and foliage. Some kites were big enough to carry a person, and these were sometimes used to lift warriors over the walls of enemy defences.

===Puppetry=== 
The Māori made Karetao (puppets) to use in story-telling. The Karetao were carved figures featuring a handle at the bottom (and held by one hand) and movable arms attached to strings (operated by the other hand).

===Other Games=== 
Other games include
*Spinning Tops
*Wrestling
*Throwing Darts
*Memorization Games


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===String Figures=== 
String figures are designs made on the hands and fingers using a piece of string tied into a circle. In the west, an example of this would be the ''cat in the cradle''.


For instruction on making several Māori string figures, see
http://www.tki.org.nz/r/hpe/exploring_te_ao_kori/stringgames/index_e.php

===Stilts=== 
[[Image:WSJ2007 TerraVille Stilts.JPG|thumb|300px]]
Stilts are long poles with foot pegs mounted to them. The stilt-walker stands on the pegs, and the poles extend upwards past the shoulders. The walker wraps his arms around the poles and as he lifts his left foot, uses his left hand to lift the pole. The foot pegs are often movable, and it is best to learn to walk with stilts with the pegs set low to the ground. As the Pathfinder develops skill, the foot pegs can be raised.


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The word '''pā''' (pronounced pah) refers to a Māori village, generally one from the 19th century or earlier that was fortified for defense. In Māori society, a great pā represented the mana of a tribal group, as personified by a chief or rangatira.


Nearly all pā were built in defensible locations to protect dwelling sites or gardens, almost always on prominent, raised ground which was then terraced; as for example in the Auckland region, where dormant volcanic cones were used. While built for defense, many were also primarily residential, and often quite extensive.


Māori pā played a significant role in the New Zealand Land Wars, though they are known from earlier periods of Māori history. They were mostly absent, however, until around 500 years ago, suggesting scarcity of resources through environmental damage and population pressure began to bring about warfare, leading to a period of pā building.

===Fortification=== 
[[Image:Mt Eden terraces.JPG|thumb|right|Terraces on Mt Eden, Auckland, marking the sites of the defensive palisades and ditches of this former pā.]]


Their main defense was the use of earth ramparts (or terraced hillsides), topped with stakes or wicker barriers. The historically later versions were constructed by people who were fighting with muskets and hand weapons (such as spear, taiaha and mere) against the British Army and armed constabulary, who were armed with swords, rifles, and heavy weapons such as howitzers and rocket artillery.


Pā were often put in place in very limited time scales, sometimes less than two days, and resisted attack for many hours and, sometimes, weeks. Military historians like John Keegan have noted that Māori recognition of the strong resistance of earth fortifications against modern weapons (especially artillery) predates the successful defensive use of trenches and sloped earth ramparts in World War I by many decades.


Warrior chiefs like Te Ruki Kawiti realised these properties as a good counter to the greater firepower of the British. With that in mind, they sometimes built pā purposefully to resist the British Empire's forces, like at Ruapekapeka, which was constructed specifically to draw the enemy, instead of protecting a specific site or place of habitation like more traditional pās. At the Battle of Ruapekapeka, the British suffered 45 casualties, against only 30 amongst the Māori. Afterwards, British engineers twice surveyed the fortifications, produced a scale model and tabled the plans in the House of Commons.


The fortifications of such a purpose-built pa included palisades of puriri trunks and split timber, with bundles of protective flax padding, the two lines of palisade covering a firing trench with individual pits, while more defenders could use the second palisade to fire over the heads of the first below. Simple communication trenches or tunnels were also built to connect the various parts, as found at Ohaeawai Pā or Ruapekapeka. The forts could even include underground bunkers, protected by a thick layer of earth over wooden beams, which sheltered the inhabitants during periods of heavy shelling by artillery.


A limiting factor of the Māori fortifications that were not built as set pieces, however, was the need for the people inhabiting them to leave frequently to cultivate areas for food, or to gather it from the wilderness. Consequently, pā would often be abandoned for 4 to 6 months of each year.

===Examples=== 
The old pā remains found on Maungakiekie/One Tree Hill, New Zealand, close to the center of Auckland, represent one of the largest known sites as well as one of the largest pre-historic earthworks fortifications known worldwide.


The word pā can refer to any Māori village or defensive settlement, but often refers to hill forts – fortified settlements with palisades and defensive terraces – and also to fortified villages. Pā are mainly in the North Island of New Zealand, north of Lake Taupo. Over 5000 sites have been located, photographed and examined although few have been subject to detailed analysis.


For more details, start with [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%81|this article].


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==References== 
* [http://history-nz.org/kite.html Māori Kites]
* [http://www.maori.org.nz/Tikanga/default.asp?pid=sp45&parent=42 Tangihanga procedures]
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=gemgFqF831QC&pg=PA72&lpg=PA72&dq=maori+mealtime+customs&source=bl&ots=iVvnj6Y5hM&sig=U_hTRfsLLKZvRT1K1v4lYC9DcKo&hl=en&ei=wkufSei3PN-BtwfVwMGODQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA38,M1 Maori Symbolism]
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=XXa3fXxLshMC&pg=PA98&lpg=PA98&dq=maori+sleeping+customs&source=bl&ots=ANX0VOoNy2&sig=wxOIIfeyEEVPrXmP3dEUFch8Yi8&hl=en&ei=g-2xSc22O4_ftgfY3cDEBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=7&ct=result#PPA99,M1 Tikanga Māori], by Sidney M. Mead, Hirini Moko Mead
* [http://spd.adventistconnect.org/education-history-statistics Adventist Connect - Education History]
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=y9l93XMRljwC&pg=PA305&lpg=PA305&dq=adventist+maori+story&source=bl&ots=r1mYKdoFss&sig=i1g8X9I2XK9vpdEZsQMEw1FYNlo&hl=en&ei=t9O5Sa3qBJGgM-XGjbII&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result#PPA107,M1 May the People Live], by Raeburn Lange.


[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
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AY Honors/LEGO® Design/Answer Key 2

2021-09-21T01:38:28Z

BoisSar:

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Any item made by LEGO. For example: Bricks, plates, tiles, all minfigure parts and accessories.
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The round connection point on top of a standard brick.
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A standard plastic element. Usually 6 sided (including top and bottom) and ranging in widths and lengths between 1 and 16 studs.
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A flat plastic element. One third the height of a brick element.
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A flat plastic element with no attachment points on the bottom and thinner than a standard plate.
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Similar to a plate however with no attachment points or studs on top.
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A brick that has been modified to have a downward incline. The top of the brick has fewer connection points than the bottom of the brick.
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A brick that has been modified to have an upward incline. The top of the brick has more connection points than the bottom of the brick.
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One or more elements that are combined to allow connected pieces to move in any range of motion.
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Specialized elements that are designed to connect with axles and pins. These may or may not have standard connect points.
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Elements that are designed to store, carry, and use electricity. For example: Battery Packs, power cords, lights, motors, remote controls, and remote control receivers.
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Typically 4 elements that make up a LEGO person: 1. Hat, hair, helmet, etc.; 2. Head; 3. Torso, usually includes arms and hands; 4. Legs, usually includes waist.
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More information on types of parts and their actual names: [http://guide.lugnet.com/partsref/ Lugnet Parts Ref]
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These are a range of scales where the size of a person is smaller than a minifigure.
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These are builds proportioned to the size of a standard minifigure.
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These are builds that are actual or life size.

[[File:Lego Design.jpg]]


[http://www.brickshelf.com Brickshelf] has a lot of amazing scale models here. Just type in the search what you are looking for.


[http://www.bricklink.com Bricklink] allows you to purchase LEGO® bricks if your looking at building a certain model. Remember to get your parent's permission before purchasing LEGO® individually!


[http://www.ldraw.org/ LDraw] If you can not get access to LEGO®. This is a virtual LEGO® Program that you can use on the computer to use your imagination to build freely with.

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You are working on the [[AY Honors/Christian_Storytelling|Christian Storytelling]] honor right?


You could also include this as a way to communicate the "visual" requirement for many of the newer nature honors.
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You can find some ideas on scenes to build on stories around the Bible at [http://thebrickbible.com/ Brick Bible]

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Stop Motion Animation using LEGO® can be a great use to show events that happened in the Bible in a cool, fun way.-->

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LEGO®, the LEGO® logo and the minifigure are trademarks and/or copyrights of The LEGO® Group.
Pathfinders and the Seventh-day Adventist Church are not affiliated with and/or facilitated by The LEGO® Group.

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==References== 


[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/noindex|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
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AY Honors/LEGO® Design/Answer Key

2021-09-21T01:11:33Z

BoisSar:

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Any item made by LEGO. For example: Bricks, plates, tiles, all minfigure parts and accessories.
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The round connection point on top of a standard brick.
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A standard plastic element. Usually 6 sided (including top and bottom) and ranging in widths and lengths between 1 and 16 studs.
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A flat plastic element. One third the height of a brick element.
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A flat plastic element with no attachment points on the bottom and thinner than a standard plate.
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Similar to a plate however with no attachment points or studs on top.
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A brick that has been modified to have a downward incline. The top of the brick has fewer connection points than the bottom of the brick.
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A brick that has been modified to have an upward incline. The top of the brick has more connection points than the bottom of the brick.
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One or more elements that are combined to allow connected pieces to move in any range of motion.
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Specialized elements that are designed to connect with axles and pins. These may or may not have standard connect points.
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Elements that are designed to store, carry, and use electricity. For example: Battery Packs, power cords, lights, motors, remote controls, and remote control receivers.
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Typically 4 elements that make up a LEGO person: 1. Hat, hair, helmet, etc.; 2. Head; 3. Torso, usually includes arms and hands; 4. Legs, usually includes waist.


More information on types of parts and their actual names: [http://guide.lugnet.com/partsref/ Lugnet Parts Ref]

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[[File:Lego Design.jpg]]

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[http://www.brickshelf.com Brickshelf] has a lot of amazing scale models here. Just type in the search what you are looking for.


[http://www.bricklink.com Bricklink] allows you to purchase LEGO® bricks if your looking at building a certain model. Remember to get your parent's permission before purchasing LEGO® individually!


[http://www.ldraw.org/ LDraw] If you can not get access to LEGO®. This is a virtual LEGO® Program that you can use on the computer to use your imagination to build freely with.

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You are working on the [[Adventist_Youth_Honors_Answer_Book/Outreach/Christian_Storytelling|Christian Storytelling]] honor right?


You could also include this as a way to communicate the "visual" requirement for many of the newer nature honors.

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You can find some ideas on scenes to build on stories around the Bible at [http://thebrickbible.com/ Brick Bible]

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Stop Motion Animation using LEGO® can be a great use to show events that happened in the Bible in a cool, fun way.

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LEGO®, the LEGO® logo and the minifigure are trademarks and/or copyrights of The LEGO® Group.
Pathfinders and the Seventh-day Adventist Church are not affiliated with and/or facilitated by The LEGO® Group.

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==References== 


[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/noindex|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
<section end="Body" />
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AY Honors/LEGO® Design/Answer Key 2

2021-09-21T01:05:04Z

BoisSar:

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Any item made by LEGO. For example: Bricks, plates, tiles, all minfigure parts and accessories.
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The round connection point on top of a standard brick.
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A standard plastic element. Usually 6 sided (including top and bottom) and ranging in widths and lengths between 1 and 16 studs.
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{{ansreq|page={{#var:reqpage}}|num=1d}}
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A flat plastic element. One third the height of a brick element.
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A flat plastic element with no attachment points on the bottom and thinner than a standard plate.
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Similar to a plate however with no attachment points or studs on top.
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{{ansreq|page={{#var:reqpage}}|num=1g}}
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A brick that has been modified to have a downward incline. The top of the brick has fewer connection points than the bottom of the brick.
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A brick that has been modified to have an upward incline. The top of the brick has more connection points than the bottom of the brick.
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One or more elements that are combined to allow connected pieces to move in any range of motion.
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Specialized elements that are designed to connect with axles and pins. These may or may not have standard connect points.
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Elements that are designed to store, carry, and use electricity. For example: Battery Packs, power cords, lights, motors, remote controls, and remote control receivers.
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Typically 4 elements that make up a LEGO person: 1. Hat, hair, helmet, etc.; 2. Head; 3. Torso, usually includes arms and hands; 4. Legs, usually includes waist.
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More information on types of parts and their actual names: [http://guide.lugnet.com/partsref/ Lugnet Parts Ref]
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These are a range of scales where the size of a person is smaller than a minifigure.
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These are builds proportioned to the size of a standard minifigure.
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These are builds that are actual or life size.

[[File:Lego Design.jpg]]

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You are working on the [[AY Honors/Christian_Storytelling|Christian Storytelling]] honor right?


You could also include this as a way to communicate the "visual" requirement for many of the newer nature honors.
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You can find some ideas on scenes to build on stories around the Bible at [http://thebrickbible.com/ Brick Bible]

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Stop Motion Animation using LEGO® can be a great use to show events that happened in the Bible in a cool, fun way.-->

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LEGO®, the LEGO® logo and the minifigure are trademarks and/or copyrights of The LEGO® Group.
Pathfinders and the Seventh-day Adventist Church are not affiliated with and/or facilitated by The LEGO® Group.

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==References== 


[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/noindex|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
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AY Honors/LEGO® Design/Answer Key 2

2021-09-21T00:59:57Z

BoisSar:

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{{#vardefine:reqpage|{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Requirements 2}}

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Any item made by LEGO. For example: Bricks, plates, tiles, all minfigure parts and accessories.
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The round connection point on top of a standard brick.
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A standard plastic element. Usually 6 sided (including top and bottom) and ranging in widths and lengths between 1 and 16 studs.
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A flat plastic element. One third the height of a brick element.
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A flat plastic element with no attachment points on the bottom and thinner than a standard plate.
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Similar to a plate however with no attachment points or studs on top.
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A brick that has been modified to have a downward incline. The top of the brick has fewer connection points than the bottom of the brick.
<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
{{CloseReq}} 
{{ansreq|page={{#var:reqpage}}|num=1h}}
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A brick that has been modified to have an upward incline. The top of the brick has more connection points than the bottom of the brick.
<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
{{CloseReq}} 
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One or more elements that are combined to allow connected pieces to move in any range of motion.
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Specialized elements that are designed to connect with axles and pins. These may or may not have standard connect points.
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{{CloseReq}} 
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Elements that are designed to store, carry, and use electricity. For example: Battery Packs, power cords, lights, motors, remote controls, and remote control receivers.
<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
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Typically 4 elements that make up a LEGO person: 1. Hat, hair, helmet, etc.; 2. Head; 3. Torso, usually includes arms and hands; 4. Legs, usually includes waist.
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More information on types of parts and their actual names: [http://guide.lugnet.com/partsref/ Lugnet Parts Ref]
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[[File:Lego Design.jpg]]

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You are working on the [[AY Honors/Christian_Storytelling|Christian Storytelling]] honor right?


You could also include this as a way to communicate the "visual" requirement for many of the newer nature honors.
<noinclude></translate></noinclude>

{{CloseReq}} 

{{ansreq|page={{#var:reqpage}}|num=5}}
<noinclude><translate></noinclude>


You can find some ideas on scenes to build on stories around the Bible at [http://thebrickbible.com/ Brick Bible]

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Stop Motion Animation using LEGO® can be a great use to show events that happened in the Bible in a cool, fun way.-->

<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
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{{ansreq|page={{#var:reqpage}}|num=Note}}
<noinclude><translate></noinclude>

LEGO®, the LEGO® logo and the minifigure are trademarks and/or copyrights of The LEGO® Group.
Pathfinders and the Seventh-day Adventist Church are not affiliated with and/or facilitated by The LEGO® Group.

<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
{{CloseReq}} 
<noinclude><translate></noinclude>
==References== 


[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/noindex|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
{{CloseHonorPage}}

AY Honors/Street Art/Answer Key

2021-09-20T23:44:10Z

BoisSar:

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Your tag name is everything! It is more than just the word given to you by your parents or the nice name your friends call you. It’s your identity. Different than your birth name because you’re not going to write that on a wall. It’s your brand. One of the first considerations when choosing a name is how it sounds. Where does the mind go when the name rolls off the tongue? What do you think of? How does it look like when it is written? How do the letters work together?


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God “painted” this world and “tagged” His name on this finished painting with His “tag” on the seventh day. Genesis 1-2


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The term graffiti originally referred to the inscriptions and markings found on the walls of ancient ruins, such as in the civilizations of Greece and Rome. Graffiti was done by the ancient Egyptians, the Vikings, and even the Mayans. These people communicated with each other about daily life, current events, news, etc., offering us a direct look into their ancient street life. It is a tradition of communication. Even before this, there were caves in France where men left markings on the walls to let us know who was there. Over the centuries those caves changed into the tunnels of the New York subway system, other big city neighborhoods, and computer desktops.


The beginning of what we call modern graffiti was laid out in Philadelphia in the late 1960s. Two writers (taggers) named Cornbread and Cool Earl were credited with the first early efforts. They gained a lot of attention for leaving their names everywhere. Then somehow this idea traveled from Philly to New York around 1971, around the birth of the Hip Hop subculture. Soon after, New York produced one of the first writers to get even more attention -- Taki 183. After an interview with him, hundreds of kids started writing their names all over New York.


As graffiti became more and more popular, writers created new styles, and challenged new ways to stand apart from each other, and it continues today.


Graffiti art is a uniquely American art form. Today, it is influencing the work of creative individuals worldwide in areas as diverse as graphic design, photography, advertising, marketing, illustration, fine art, and even multimedia and technology.


Why are we attracted to graffiti? Part of it has to do with the psychology of affirmation. There is something inside of us that wants to take up space and proclaim our existence. We want to be famous, seen, recognized, acknowledged, and affirmed. Graffiti can do that. It has always been about rebellion, style, observation, and self-worth. Unfortunately, these descriptions are fed by negative actions.


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Started by YOUTH of Philadelphia and New York in the late 1960s <br>
An alternative to gang warfare <br>
The 1980s were the Golden Age of graffiti <br>
Pioneers of graffiti were Cornbread, Cool Earl, and Taki 183 <br>
Graffiti art was adopted into the Hip Hop culture which included rap music, disc jockeys and break dancing <br>
By the 1990s, Hip Hop culture had lost its initial vibrancy, but had become known worldwide and accepted as a part of mainstream US culture <br>
Two kinds of writing, public and private <br>
Street art, as well as graffiti, is about styles


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A practitioner of graffiti who creates graffiti formats for the purpose of vandalism


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Your alter ego name/signature/brand; where your artistry starts


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Writings or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed illicitly on a wall or other surface in a public space


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The ability to control the spray pressure and amount of paint sprayed


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Quick and stylish signatures of the individual person


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A throw-up or “throwie” generally consists of a one-color outline and one layer of fill-color. Easy-to-paint bubble shapes often for letters.


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A large, complex, and labor-intensive graffiti painting consisting of letters; because they take so much time and effort, burners in downtown areas are more likely to be legal pieces, painted with the consent of the property owner


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A large picture painted or affixed directly on a wall or ceiling


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To “go over” a piece of graffiti simply means to paint on top of it


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The nozzle for the aerosol paint can, also referred to as “tips”; different kinds are used for different styles


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A group of associated graffitists that often work together; crews are differentiated from gangs in that their main objective is to paint graffiti


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To remove painted graffiti with chemicals and other instruments, or to paint over it with a flat color


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Graffiti with text so stylized as to be difficult to read; often with interlocking three-dimensional type


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To bomb or hit is to paint over many surfaces in an area


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A legalized form of artistic vandalism, where the artwork often depicts a message


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Doodling: graffiti that we all did/do on our desk growing up in school <br>
Latrinalia: graffiti we see at rest stops or gas station restrooms


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Gang graffiti:graffiti written in public areas by local gangs; purpose of this is to mark territory and cause terror in the community <br>
Tags: quick and stylish signatures of the individual person <br>
Throw ups: a throw-up or “throwie” generally consists of a one-color outline and one layer of fill-color. Easy-to-paint bubble shapes often for letters. A throw-up is designed for quick execution, to avoid attracting attention to the writer. Throw-ups are often utilized by writers who wish to achieve a large number of tags while competing with rival graffitists. Most graffitists have both a tag and a throw-up that are essentially fixed compared to pieces. It is mostly so because they need to have a recognizable logo for others to identify them and their own individual style. <br>
Walls/pieces: a large, complex, and labor-intensive graffiti painting consisting of letters. Pieces often incorporate 3D effects, and many colors and color transitions, as well as various other effects. These will usually be done by writers with more experience. A piece requires more time to paint than a throw-up. If placed in a difficult location and well executed, it will earn the writer more respect. Piece can also be used as a verb that means “to write.” <br>
Murals/street art: a large picture painted or affixed directly on a wall or ceiling


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Street art adorns the landscape; graffiti tagging scars it and accelerates urban decay. <br>
Street art stretches your mind; graffiti closes it. <br>
Street art is about the audience; graffiti is about the tagger/writer. <br>
Street art says “have you thought about this?”; graffiti says “I tag, therefore I exist”. <br>
Street art is done with a smile; graffiti is done with a scowl. <br>
Street art takes skill; graffiti takes guts. <br>
Street art delivers a message; graffiti delivers a mess. <br>
We mourn losing street art and celebrate losing graffiti tagging.


Influence: <br>
Kids ages 13-18 are more sensitive to graffiti <br>
Teens living in the city <br>
Described as “taggers,” “writers,” “bombers” <br>
Cry for attention <br>
It is an adrenaline rush <br>
It is about respect <br>
This rebellious attitude against society is often manifested in their defiance against authority <br>
Media and subculture have a strong role


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Practice, practice, practice


Note: Always spray by strokes (have a 1, 2.1, 2.1, 2 count), not a consistent spray. This prevents overspray and drips.


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Note: Always draw out your first initial drawing with a very light color then do the final drawing with a slightly darker color. Similar to how one would first draw with a pencil and follow it with a pen.


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{{Bible verse
|book = 1 Peter
|chapter = 2
|verse = 9
|version = NKJV
|text=But you ''are'' a chosen generation, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, His own special people, that you may proclaim the praises of Him who called you out of darkness into His marvelous light;
}}


{{Bible verse
|book = Romans
|chapter = 13
|verse = 1
|version = NKJV
|text=Let every soul be subject to the governing authorities. For there is no authority except from God, and the authorities that exist are appointed by God.
}}


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==References== 
* [[w:Glossary_of_graffiti|Graffiti Glossary]]


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AY Honors/Paper Quilling/Answer Key

2021-09-20T23:33:00Z

BoisSar:

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Paper quilling was originally called '''paper rolling''' or '''paper filigree'''


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During the Renaissance, French and Italian nuns and monks used quilling to decorate book covers and religious items. The paper most commonly used was strips of paper trimmed from the gilded edges of books. These gilded paper strips were then rolled to create the quilled shapes. Quilling often imitated the original ironwork of the day.
In the 18th century, quilling became popular in Europe where "ladies of leisure" practiced the art. Quilling also spread to the Americas and there are a few examples from Colonial times. Many of the pieces that have been preserved from this time are found religious plaques and artwork.
Today, quilling is seeing resurgence in popularity. The craft has become increasingly popular due to the low cost of the basic material, paper, that is required to make the shapes. It is used to decorate wedding invitations, birth announcements, greeting cards, scrapbook pages, and boxes. Quilling can be found in art galleries in Europe and in the United States and is an art that is practiced around the world.


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*Quilling Wand (Slotted Tool)
*Paper strips
*Glue
*Ruler
*Pins and Cardboard (to make eccentric coils if wanted)


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<gallery perrow=2 widths=300px>
image:Paper Quilling 1.jpg|1. To make a tight circle, take a quilling wand and a paper strip cut the you desired length. Put the end of the paper strip into the slot on the quilling wand.
image:Paper quilling 2.jpg|2. Then, holding the paper strip kind of taut with your left hand, roll the wand toward your left hand with your right hand
Image:Paper quilling 3.jpg|3. Keep rolling and once you get to the end of the paper strip, put a tiny dot of glue on the end of the strip and press it against the side of the circle and hold it there for 5-10 seconds for the glue to dry
Image:Paper quilling 4.jpg|4. Now, slip the tight circle off the quilling wand and... voila!! You have made a tight circle.
</gallery>


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Image:Circle.jpg|1. The loose circle is almost the same as a tight circle. You start off the same way as you did with the tight circle but when you get to the end of the strip, don't put any glue on the strip, but pull the circle off the quilling wand.
Image:Poof.jpg|2. Now, set it on a table and let it poof out!!
Image:Glueeee.jpg|3. Then, put a little dot of glue on the end of the paper strip and press it against the side of the circle and hold it there for 5-10 seconds.
Image:Loose circlee.jpg|4. And now you have a loose circle!!
</gallery>


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Image:Teardroppaper.jpg|1. To make a teardrop, start out with a loose circle. Pinch one side of the circle into a point
image:Teardropquilling.jpg|2. Now you have made a teardrop!
</gallery>


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Image:Shaped tear.jpg| 1. To make a shaped teardrop, start off with a teardrop, but curl the point downwards.
Image:Shapedteardrop.jpg| 2. And now you have made a shaped teardrop!
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Image:Marquise! .jpg| 1. to make a marquise, start off with a loose circle, then pinch it on opposite sides.
Image:Marquiseeeeee.jpg| 2. Now you have, a marquise!
</gallery>


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These are very fun to make! All you need to know is how to make the basic shapes and scrolls listed above. You can combine the shapes to make beautiful flowers, butterflies, and designs. Then you can glue them onto a card or a piece of paper and hang it in your room. Here is a simple floral design using marquises, S scrolls, loose scrolls, V Scrolls, teardrops, and tight circles.


[[Image:Flowerdesign.jpg|right]]


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==References== 
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AY Honors/Paper Quilling/Answer Key

2021-09-20T23:27:34Z

BoisSar:

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Paper quilling was originally called '''paper rolling''' or '''paper filigree'''


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During the Renaissance, French and Italian nuns and monks used quilling to decorate book covers and religious items. The paper most commonly used was strips of paper trimmed from the gilded edges of books. These gilded paper strips were then rolled to create the quilled shapes. Quilling often imitated the original ironwork of the day.
In the 18th century, quilling became popular in Europe where "ladies of leisure" practiced the art. Quilling also spread to the Americas and there are a few examples from Colonial times. Many of the pieces that have been preserved from this time are found religious plaques and artwork.
Today, quilling is seeing resurgence in popularity. The craft has become increasingly popular due to the low cost of the basic material, paper, that is required to make the shapes. It is used to decorate wedding invitations, birth announcements, greeting cards, scrapbook pages, and boxes. Quilling can be found in art galleries in Europe and in the United States and is an art that is practiced around the world.


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*Quilling Wand (Slotted Tool)
*Paper strips
*Glue
*Ruler
*Pins and Cardboard (to make eccentric coils if wanted)


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<gallery perrow=2 widths=300px>
image:Paper Quilling 1.jpg|1. To make a tight circle, take a quilling wand and a paper strip cut the you desired length. Put the end of the paper strip into the slot on the quilling wand.
image:Paper quilling 2.jpg|2. Then, holding the paper strip kind of taut with your left hand, roll the wand toward your left hand with your right hand
Image:Paper quilling 3.jpg|3. Keep rolling and once you get to the end of the paper strip, put a tiny dot of glue on the end of the strip and press it against the side of the circle and hold it there for 5-10 seconds for the glue to dry
Image:Paper quilling 4.jpg|4. Now, slip the tight circle off the quilling wand and... voila!! You have made a tight circle.
</gallery>


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Image:Circle.jpg|1. The loose circle is almost the same as a tight circle. You start off the same way as you did with the tight circle but when you get to the end of the strip, don't put any glue on the strip, but pull the circle off the quilling wand.
Image:Poof.jpg|2. Now, set it on a table and let it poof out!!
Image:Glueeee.jpg|3. Then, put a little dot of glue on the end of the paper strip and press it against the side of the circle and hold it there for 5-10 seconds.
Image:Loose circlee.jpg|4. And now you have a loose circle!!
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Image:Teardroppaper.jpg|1. To make a teardrop, start out with a loose circle. Pinch one side of the circle into a point
image:Teardropquilling.jpg|2. Now you have made a teardrop!
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Image:Shaped tear.jpg| 1. To make a shaped teardrop, start off with a teardrop, but curl the point downwards.
Image:Shapedteardrop.jpg| 2. And now you have made a shaped teardrop!
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Image:Marquise! .jpg| 1. to make a marquise, start off with a loose circle, then pinch it on opposite sides.
Image:Marquiseeeeee.jpg| 2. Now you have, a marquise!
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These are very fun to make! All you need to know is how to make the basic shapes and scrolls listed above. You can combine the shapes to make beautiful flowers, butterflies, and designs. Then you can glue them onto a card or a piece of paper and hang it in your room. Here is a simple floral design using marquises, S scrolls, loose scrolls, V Scrolls, teardrops, and tight circles.


[[Image:Flowerdesign.jpg|right]]


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==References== 
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[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
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AY Honors/Paper Maché/Answer Key

2021-09-20T23:19:34Z

BoisSar:

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[[Image:Papier mache.jpg|thumb|right|Papier-mâché around a form such as a balloon to create a pig. The balloon is popped when the glue hardens.]]
When wet, paper maché has very little form and will not hold its shape. So the first step in making a paper maché project is to make a base onto which the paper maché is applied. Bases can be made from many different items, including:
#'''Balloons:''' Inflate a balloon and tape other items onto it, such as paper cups, toilet paper rolls, or other items.
#'''Plastic bottles:''' Attach golf tees for legs to turn a plastic bottle into an animal (such as a pig).
#'''Aluminum Foil:''' Press the foil around a person's face to get an image of it. If the subject wears glasses, leave them on. Carefully remove the foil and place crumpled newspaper into it to help hold the shape.
#'''Paper Plates:''' These make an excellent base for constructing a mask.
#'''Cardboard Boxes:''' Use small cardboard boxes such as those in which many food items are packaged.
#'''Wire and Wire Mesh:''' Form wire into the desired shape. Especially useful for this is fencing wire (such as chicken wire) and gutter guard mesh. Hardware cloth is a little too stiff to work with.


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These are the Paper Pulp Method and Paper Strip Method. In both methods, reinforcements with wire, chicken wire, lightweight shapes, balloons or textiles may be needed.


Before painting any product of papier-mâché, the glue must be fully dried, otherwise mold will form and the product will rot from the inside out.


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'''Paper Pulp Method'''


#Prepare the paper: tear up your paper into little pieces (newspaper works well and is free) or collect paper from an office shredder. In some instances, this will be good enough, but if you need finer pulp, throw the paper into a blender with some water.
#Leave the paper in water at least overnight to soak, or boil in abundant water until the paper dissolves in a pulp.
#Drain excess water through a fine sieve. Don't plug your sink with pulp.
#Add adhesive - which could be white glue or wallpaper paste or any of a variety of other adhesives depending on the desired effect. Amounts are not given here - you need to experiment to find a consistency that works well for what you are trying to do.
#Shape the pulp directly over or inside the a form. You can also sculpt directly like clay without a form to guide you, especially for smaller or simpler objects


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The '''Paper Strip Method''' uses layers of paper strips glued together with adhesive.


#Tear or cut your paper (newspaper works well) into strips. The width and length of the strips will depend on the size of the object you want to create.
#Create a form for support on which to glue the paper strips. It can be an armature or skeleton, often of wire mesh over a structural frame, or you might use an object to create a cast. Oil or grease can be used as a release agent if needed.


#Make your glue after you are all ready to use it as it will start drying out. The traditional glue is


* 6 cups water
* 1 cup white flour


Mix the flour into the water thoroughly with your hands, being sure to break up all the lumps. You might try heating the mixture too, but do not let it come to a boil. You can vary the amount of flour or water to make the glue thicker or thinner. Experiment to find what works best for you.


You can also add a few tablespoons of bleach to retard the growth of mold, but make sure everyone who is going to use the paste knows that you did this - after all, flour and water are the same ingredients that you use to make bread, and you don't want your Pathfinders performing any taste-tests on a bleach-laden batch of glue!


#Soaked the paper in the paste until saturated
#Layer the saturated pieces allow to dry slowly
#When the glue dries, the paper stays in place and binds together forming a (hopefully) beautiful sculpture.
#Once dried, the sculpture can be cut, sanded and/or painted. Waterproofing with water-repelling paint works well.


The traditional method of making papier-mâché adhesive is to use a mixture of water and flour or other starch, mixed to the consistency of heavy cream. Other adhesives can be used if thinned to a similar texture, such as polyvinyl acetate-based glues (wood glue or, in the United States, white Elmer's glue). Adding oil of cloves or other additives such as salt or a little bleach to the mixture reduces the chances of the product developing mold.


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:Here are some thoughts on the paste from Wikipedia: [[w:Paper maché|Paper Maché]]


:Paper-mâché paste is the substance that holds the paper together. The traditional method of making paper-mâché paste is to add one part water to one part flour. Some artists prefer to boil the paste, saying that it makes the consistency smoother. Water to flour ratio is changed to five parts water to one part flour in this case. Other artists use a three to one or a one to one ratio of water and Polyvinyl acetate (PVA glue). Still others say that starch makes a fine paste. Adding a dash of cinnamon to the mixture gives the paste a pleasant smell; adding a dash of salt reduces the chances of the product developing mold.


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The painting adds the color, while the varnish makes the art more water resistant and gives it a solid surface. Have fun.


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If you need further instruction we suggest searching YouTube for demonstration videos. Have fun creating.


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[[Image:Preparazione vendola.jpg|thumb|500px|Building of a papier maché mask in the Carnival of Massafra]]
As the instructor, you will be responsible for judging the workmanship of the projects. The most important consideration is that you apply a fair standard and not show favoritism. Pathfinders are quickly able to detect unfairness, as it is an extremely important concept to them.


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==References== 
* [http://www.katehodgson.net/pmcindex.html Kate Hodgson's Paper Maché Website]
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AY Honors/Felt Craft/Answer Key

2021-09-20T23:09:32Z

BoisSar:

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[[Image:Coarse Wool 40x.JPG|thumb|400px|Wool fiber under 40X magnification]]
Felt is made from wool. Wool hairs are covered with tiny scales (see photo) which cause them to interlock with one another. The scales on a wool fiber are similar to the scales on a pine cone.
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# Crafts
# Felt-tipped pens
# Interfacing (sewing)
# Hats
# Shoe insoles
# Polishing wheels
# Roofing felt
# Gloves
# Slippers
# Yurt walls (a yurt is a Mongolian home)
# Furniture pads
# Table covers
# Pool tables
# Gaskets
# Rugs
# Tents
# Clothing
# Textile art
# Drum cymbal stands to protect the cymbal from cracking
# Chair feet pads to protect the floor
# Pathfinder Honor Patches


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# Felt is inexpensive
# It can be made in any color, including white and bright colors
# It is durable
# Felt can be formed into any shape
# Felt can be easily cut
# Felt is easy to sew, and can accept fabric glue
# It is soft and pleasant to work with


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Felt is made by a process called wet felting, where the natural wool fiber is '''stimulated by friction''' and '''lubricated by moisture''' (usually water), and the fibers move at a 90 degree angle towards the friction source and then away again, in effect making little "tacking" stitches. Only 5% of the fibers are active at any one moment, but the process is continual, and so different 'sets' of fibers become activated and then deactivated in the continual process.


This "wet" process utilizes the inherent nature of wool and other animal hairs, because the hairs have scales on them which are directional. The hairs also have kinks in them, and this combination of scales (like the structure of a pine cone) are what react to the stimulation of friction and cause the phenomenon of felting. It tends to work well only with woolen fibers as their scales, when aggravated, bond together to form a cloth.


From the mid-17th to the mid-20th centuries, a process called "carroting" was used in the manufacture of good quality felt for making men's hats. Rabbit or hare skins were treated with a dilute solution of the mercury compound mercuric nitrate. The skins were dried in an oven when the thin fur at the sides went orange - carrot color. Pelts were stretched over a bar in a cutting machine and the skin sliced off in thin shreds, the fleece coming away entirely. The fur was blown onto a cone-shaped colander, treated with hot water to consolidate it, the cone peeled off and passed through wet rollers to cause the fur to felt. These 'hoods' were then dyed and blocked to make hats. This toxic solution and the vapors it produced resulted in widespread cases of mercury poisoning among hatters, which may have been the origin behind the phrase "mad as a hatter". The United States Public Health Service banned the use of mercury in the felt industry in December 1941.


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'''8 steps to make felt'''


1.
Start with raw wool. It can be straight off the animal without further processing or you can purchase carded wool off the internet or at craft shows. Any color will do.


2.
Assemble wool and liquid dish soap near a sink with running water or use a table top and a bowl of warm water.


3.
Pull a small amount of wool apart and fluff it up by continually pulling it apart. Set this pile of wool aside.


4.
Wet your hands with warm water and add a very small drop of liquid dish soap to your hands.


5.
Pick up the pile of wool and gently roll it between the palms of your hands to form a ball. As the wool begins to felt, press harder so it will stiffen even more.


6.
When the wool is firm, stop rolling and rinse with cold water.


7.
Press it in a towel to remove excess water.


8.
Allow the wool to air dry.


You can also watch this short video on how Mongolians make felt with traditional methods.


{{#widget:YouTube|id=FuoWHBnpujg}}


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This video shows how to make a pennant. A cover for a scrapbook is a very similar project.
{{#widget:YouTube|id=TFNGOTe1xn4}}


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There are lots of cute, fun, and interesting bookmarks you can make. Again, YouTube is your friend.


{{#widget:YouTube|id=qVlXXJMs5AE}}
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====Ladybug Bookmark==== 


# Materials: Red felt, black felt, two googlie eyes, thin black pipe clears, scrap cardboard (cereal box or pasta box weight), fabric glue, white glue, black marker
# Cut cardboard to width and length desired
# Wrap the cardboard in black felt. Glue on with white glue
# Cut red felt into a oval shape for the lady bug body
# Punch out or cut out 6 black spots
# With fabric glue attach the spots (or sew on)
# Add 6 legs (3 sets) with thin pipe cleaners on top of the black bookmark base and under the ladybug body
# With fabric glue (or sew) the lady bug body to the black felt bookmark, leaving a black square for the head area showing
# Trim the square top into the rounded head of the ladybug
# Mark the wings on with the black marker
# Set aside so the glue can dry


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Similar idea to the bookmark, but glue on a magnet instead.


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Directions for a heart shaped needle case. Remember to use two colors of felt.
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Here are some cute [http://brightappleblossom.blogspot.ca/2010/12/felt-finger-puppets.html felt finger puppets] (2 to 4 colors). There is a link to printable patterns from the page. These are similar in size and complexity to bookmarks and magnets.


What else can we say - go crazy with felt!


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This could be a nature or Biblical theme, or maybe felt the Pathfinder flag. You might also attach your mural to a notebook or photo album cover. Let your imagination go free and have fun.


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Here are some holiday presents from felt, felt ornaments and felt Christmas trees. These are just examples, so look around YouTube for ideas. Be sure to use four colors of felt as per the requirements.
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A good tutorial on making a [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tel25LlO2Ks| felt hand puppet] and directions for:
*[http://www.hobbycraft.co.uk/craft-idea/felt-monkey-hand-puppet/IDEA01347 Felt Monkey] (included template works for Parrot and Zebra or your creation)
*[http://www.hobbycraft.co.uk/craft-idea/felt-parrot-hand-puppet/IDEA01348 Felt Parrot]
*[http://www.hobbycraft.co.uk/craft-idea/felt-zebra-hand-puppet/IDEA01349 Felt Zebra]


Here is a much simpler hand puppet.
{{#widget:YouTube|id=SUD2Ln4O5ng}}


Making a puppet is also Requirement #1 of the [[Adventist_Youth_Honors_Answer_Book/Outreach/Puppetry|Puppetry honor]] so consider tackling both honors together.


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A cute little hot chocolate cup out of felt. Don't use it for actual hot chocolate though.
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Here are some stuffed animals (or puppets if you prefer)
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Some cute baby decoration stuffed animal toys from felt.
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Good beginner project.
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Here is a video on making a bag with felt.
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A simple way to make a felt beanbag that looks cool is to take 6 large squares of 6 different bright colors of felt and stitch them together into a cube. Build it inside out, stitching on a sewing machine until you are near the end. Than turn it right side out, fill with beans, rice, or lentils and hand stitch it closed.


Here is another take on [http://www.purlbee.com/the-purl-bee/2009/3/16/wool-felt-jelly-beans.html felt bean bags].


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==References== 
* Wikipedia article on [[w:Felt|Felt]]
Plenty of different [http://americanfeltandcraft.wordpress.com/ felt crafts]
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AY Honors/Genealogy/Answer Key

2021-09-20T22:50:09Z

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The study of a family's ancestry and history.
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A person from whom one has descended.
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One who is the offspring of a specific ancestor.
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Either member of a married couple; husband or wife.
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A person having at least one parent in common with another (i.e. a brother or a sister).


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Luke 3:23-38 and Matthew 1:1-17


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From Luke 3:


:Adam, Seth, Enosh, Cainan, Mahalalel, Jared, Enoch, Methusala, Lamech, Noah,
:Shem, Arphaxad, Cainan, Shelah, Eber, Peleg, Reu, Serug, Nahor, Terah,
:Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Judah, Perez, Hezron, Ram, Amminadab, Nahshon, Salmon, Boaz, Obed, Jesse,
:David, Nathan, Mattatha, Menna, Melea, Eliakim, Jonan, Joseph, Judah, Simeon, Levi, Matthat, Jorim,
:Eliezer, Joshua, Er, Elmadam, Cosam, Addi, Melki, Neri, Shealtiel, Zerubbabel, Rhesa, Joanan, Joda, Josech,
:Semein, Mattathias, Maath, Naggai, Esli, Nahum, Amos, Mattathias, Joseph, Jannai, Melki, Levi, Matthat, Heli, Joseph, Jesus


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* Talk to family members
* Internet
* Library
* Public Records
* Marriage Databases
* Ellis Island Records
* Mormon Records (they believe in baptising for the dead, and have assembled significant genealogy information to facilitate this)
* Census data
* Cemeteries
* Passenger Lists (boatloads of immigrants etc)
* Military Records
* Obituaries
* Newspapers
* Family records (family Bible etc) and
* Personal letters


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*The National Genealogical Society, Arlington, Virginia
*The Federation of Genealogical Societies
*Federation of East European Family History Societies
*Historical & Genealogical Societies of the U.S.


http://www.genealogylinks.net/


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*Interview Family
*Check for family records at your house or those of relatives
*Previous research done by other family members
*Access the internet and begin searching (here are a few of the available options)
**http://www.genealogy.com/79_fs-start.html
**http://www.genealogylinks.net/


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{{:AY Honors/Genealogy/Documentation}}


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{{:AY Honors/Genealogy/Primary and secondary sources}}


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Here is a blank four-generation family chart. Fill in the names after "name:", put the date of birth after the "b:", and the date of death after the "d:". If the person has not died, leave the date of death field blank. If you do not know a precise date, put a year (or a range of years). If you do not know a piece of information at all, leave the field blank.
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{|border=0 cellspacing=0 width="90%" align="center"
|-
|style="width:25%"|
|style="width:25%"|
|style="width:25%"|
|style="width:25%; border-bottom:2px solid #c0c0ff"|Great-grandfather<br>name:<br>b:<br>d:
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|style="border-bottom:2px solid #c0c0ff; border-left:2px solid #c0c0ff"|Great-grandmother<br>name:<br>b:<br>d:
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|style="border-bottom:2px solid #c0c0ff"|Yourself<br>name:<br>b:
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|style="border-bottom:2px solid #c0c0ff"|Great-grandfather<br>name:<br>b:<br>d:
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|style="border-left:2px solid #c0c0ff"|
|style="border-bottom:2px solid #c0c0ff; border-left:2px solid #c0c0ff"|Great-grandmother<br>name:<br>b:<br>d:
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|style="border-bottom:2px solid #c0c0ff"|Great-grandfather<br>name:<br>b:<br>d:
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|style="border-bottom:2px solid #c0c0ff; border-left:2px solid #c0c0ff"|Grandmother<br>name:<br>b:<br>d:
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|style="border-bottom:2px solid #c0c0ff; border-left:2px solid #c0c0ff"|Great-grandmother<br>name:<br>b:<br>d:
|}


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# Family tree chart
# Computer Genealogy program
# Family group sheets


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It would be a good idea to let your relative know ahead of time that your are interested in family history. He (or she) may surprise you with a wealth of documentation, and is sure to be delighted to share this information with you. You might get to read love letters your great-grandfather wrote to you great-grandmother, or see photographs you have never seen before. You may hear stories of long-dead relatives, or learn things you never knew about living relatives (such as your parents). It would be a good idea to bring an audio recorder so you can go back and listen to the conversation again. Such a recording will become a valuable part of your family's history.


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See requirement 8 for a chart, or use a computer program to record the information (you'll need to print it out in order to share it as per part ''e'').


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These records would include any of the following:
* Birth certificate
* Child dedication certificate
* Baptismal certificate
* Marriage license
* Military orders (assignments)
* Deed to family property
There is no reason for you to use the originals when you share this information with others, as the consequences of loss or damage can be severe. It would be better to make a photocopy. These days, identity theft has become a significant concern, so you may wish to black out some information ''but only on the copies''. The Social Security number of living person should never be shared with anyone who does not have an official need for it.
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These can be put in a photo album, mounted on a display board, or made into a computer slide show.
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If the stories have not already been recorded in writing, write them down. Even if you have an audio recording, a written record is still important, because audio technology changes over the years. It is entirely possible that you will be unable to find a tape player to play a cassette recording of your great-aunt's story in the future. CD's are nearly certain to fall victim to technology's relentless advance as well. This also applies to word processor files - ''print them out!'' It's already very difficult to read computer files that were created ten years ago, and nearly impossible to read ones created 20 years ago. A written copy printed on acid-free paper will last for centuries if properly stored, and no special equipment is needed to read it.


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If you are working on this honor as a group, you can all get together and share your information. You can also host a get-together and share your personal history then.


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Not all public libraries have genealogy sections, and some have tremendous collections. Call or visit your local public library and ask the librarians. They should be able to either tell you where their genealogy section is, or tell you the nearest library with a genealogy section.


Once you find the genealogy section of a local library, you should plan to spend a couple of hours there doing some research. Bring a notepad and a pen (or a notebook computer) with you and dig in.


If you are planning to bring a group of Pathfinders to the library, be sure to call ahead of time and let them know of your plans. They may be willing to present an orientation session.


The types of information that will be available will vary from one library to another, but you might expect to find any of the following:
*Family histories
*Census records (Federal and State, including other states)
*City Directories
*Passenger Lists
*Military Records
*Land Ownership Maps
*Native American Records
*African-American Records (including slave records)
*Online Databases
*Local Histories
*DAR Records
*Church Records
*Early Newspapers
*Vital Statistics Records (birth, marriage, and death)
*Tax Rolls
*Voter Registration Data
*Conviction and Incarceration Data


In many cases, the library will prohibit the making of photocopies of these records because of their fragile nature. However, many have programs in place to microfilm or digitize their collections. Before making any copies, check with the library staff. If possible, you should print copies from the digital or microfilm resources. Many libraries will charge a small fee to cover the costs of duplicating, so be prepared for that.


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Consider completing this exercise when doing tge next requirement.


Finding the names of three different families will be relatively easy, assuming that people from at least three families are buried there. Simply walk the grounds reading the headstones, and pretty soon you will notice a surname that gets repeated. Write that down, and then start taking note of birth and death dates. Then keep looking. More names will become apparent.


In order for an average lifespan to have any meaning, you will need data on at least eight or so individuals. Be careful not to discard data because it does not suit your preconceived ideas. This means you will record infant deaths as well as the deaths of the aged.


Determine the age at death of each individual by subtracting the date of birth from the date of death. This is most easily accomplished by use of a spreadsheet program. To do this, create four columns, and label them Name, Birth, Death, and Age. Date for the first three columns should be entered in directly. Enter dates in the form:
:"11/26/1827"
Be sure to enter a four-digit year, especially if it occurred more than 50 years ago. For the age column, assuming you are on row 2, enter the formula
: =(C2-B2)/365.24
This will make the spreadsheet calculate the person's age at death. Once you've entered that into one cell, you should be able to copy it into the others (select the cell, type ctrl-C - then highlight a column of cells and type ctrl-V. This will paste it into each highlighted cell and automatically adjust the cell references for you). The result should look something like this:


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|1 ||'''Name''' || '''Birth''' || '''Death''' ||'''Age'''
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|2 || E.G. White ||11/27/1827 ||7/16/1915 ||87.63
|-
|3 || James White || 8/4/1821 ||8/6/1881 ||60
|}


Once you have the data entered for several families, you can average the ages per family using the spreadsheet's <code>=AVG()</code> function.


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This is one area where phone books are still better than an Internet search. Few cemeteries maintain an online presence, but most are listed in the white pages of a local telephone directory. If you have not chosen a cemetery for this requirement, look in the yellow pages and choose one. If you already have one in mind, check the white pages. Then make a phone call to find out how they do maintenance. You may be better off choosing a small cemetery, as they do not generally retain a large force of groundskeepers. You may wish to call several cemeteries before committing to helping one in particular.


Large active cemeteries may not welcome your help but a smaller inactive cemetery may never get attention. Try checking with the city/county office or the agency that licenses cemeteries in your State/Province or region. You might also check with church run sites.
Some cemeteries hold an annual picnic at which they collect funds from the people who have families buried there. In years past these picnics were called "graveyard cleanings" because the people would actually assemble to mow, weed, and clean the grounds. At lunchtime they would take a break and eat a potluck picnic. Later, this practice changed so that the people would contribute money for the cemetery's upkeep, but the picnic aspect was retained.


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==References== 
[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
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AY Honors/Pin Trading/Answer Key

2021-09-20T20:48:33Z

BoisSar:

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===Origins of Pin Trading=== 
Pin trading had its origins at the Olympics. As early as the first modern Olympic Games in 1896, athletes and officials wore special badges so they could be visually recognized as representing a specific country. In 1906 Sweden was the first country to use their national colors on the badges. The other countries soon followed, and it became the standard way of doing things. Then the athletes began wearing pins featuring their national colors, and soon after that athletes from different countries began exchanging pins with each other as a symbol of unity. As time went by, they became the trading pins that we are familiar with seeing today.
The first time spectators were allowed to collect and trade pins at the Olympics was in 1980. Pin trading quickly became very popular, and today it is considered “the number one spectator sport of the Olympic Games.”
Collecting and trading pins has spread and become a popular activity and hobby in many venues other than the Olympics. However, pin trading as a hobby owes its existence to the original badges used in the first Olympic Games, as well as the changes that followed it. Without that we wouldn’t have pin trading as we know it today.

===How Pin Trading started in the Pathfinder Club=== 
Pathfinder pin trading began at the first North American Division (NAD) Pathfinder Camporee at Camp Hale,Colorado in 1985. Les Pitton was the NAD Youth Director and Norm Middag was assigned as the Chairman of the Camporee Coordinating Committee. The committee decided that as part of the camporee program they would ask each club to bring something small like a pin or other small item that represented the area in which they lived. Pathfinders from different clubs could then trade items with each other as a way to encourage them to meet new people and make new friends. There were more handmade pins, buttons, plastic pins, and other items than metal pins at that first big camporee, but it quickly became apparent that the metal pins were some of the more popular trading items. There were only a few specific Pathfinder or camporee pins at Camp Hale.After that first big Pathfinder camporee, pin trading became a very popular activity at the international camporees, with divisions, unions, conferences and many individual clubs or people making metal Pathfinder pins for trading and collecting. Many of the pins became more sophisticated with danglers, blinkers, sliders, spinners, puzzles, sets, etc., adding to the fun and excitement.


Norm Middag was also the originator of the 1991, 1992, and 1993 “Witness Through Rose Parade” floats sponsored and decorated by Pathfinders. Special pins representing the floats were made for each of the three years that the SDA Church had a float, for the purpose of pin trading at the Tournament of Roses Parade.In 1996 the Pathfinder Pin Trading School was introduced by John Swafford, Pathfinder Director for the Georgia-Cumberland Conference (GCC), located in the Southern Union (SU) of the NAD. John and his family had attended the Summer Olympics in Atlanta that year where pin trading was a very popular activity, and they went to Coca Cola’s "Pin Trading School" that taught how to go about pin trading. He decided that it would be a good idea to form a “Pathfinder Pin Trading School” to offer guidelines to the Pathfinders, as some individuals were misusing pin trading. The GCC and the SU were supportive of this idea, and the first Pathfinder Pin Trading School was held at the October 1996 SU Camporee in Cherokee, North Carolina. John Swafford, along with his family, taught this first school. They had a classroom setting where they promoted the idea to "Have Fun, Be Fair, and Be Friendly" with the aid of a video made by Jamie Arnall, Director of the GCC Communications Department, with the assistance of Fred Fuller, Director of Cohutta Springs Camp, and his 1996 camp staff. A “Pin Trading School” pin, graduation certificate, and a “Fun Fair Friendly” imprinted pencil were given to those who attended the classes. GCC has sponsored Pathfinder Pin Trading Schools at GCC, SU and international camporees since then (as of 2013).


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A design placed over a metal shell and covered with a clear plastic cover. The metal or plastic back has a safetyclasp or a straight pin. Buttons can be round, oval, square, rectangular, or diamond shaped, and come indifferent sizes. They are also known as mylar buttons or celluloid buttons.
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A device for gripping or attaching things together. Pin backs are called clutches, and are made of metal or rubber.
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Proper conduct or behavior that is socially acceptable for specific situations, such as pin trading.
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A cord that hangs around the neck which can be used for displaying pins.
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A small design (about 1-2"), usually made of metal, with some type of a clutch or clasp in the back used to attach it to clothing or other items. Pins can also be made of plastic, rubber, or other materials, and come inmany shapes and sizes. Some pins are handmade. Pins are sometimes called lapel pins or trading pins.
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The location where an event or action, such as pin trading, takes place.
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===Butterfly or Military Clutch=== 
* To attach: Carefully align the hole on the bottom of the clutch with the point of the pin, pinch “wings” together, and push clutch straight down.
* To remove: Pinch butterfly “wings” together and pull clutch straight off of the pin.
===Rubber Clutch===
* To attach: Carefully align the hole on the bottom of the clutch with the point of the pin and push clutch straight down, twisting if needed.
* To remove: Grasp the “handle” of the clutch and pull while twisting back and forth until it comes off of the pin.

===Safety Pin Clasp=== 
* To attach: Push the long stick pin down and under the hook.
* To remove: Push the long stick pin down and out from under the hook.


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Stock your collection with as many pins as possible to start. Decide what kind of pins you want to collect, and what you don't want to keep for your collection you can use for trading. Duplicates can be used for trading. The more pins you have for trading, the more fun it is!

===Free Pins=== 
* Family and Friends— Search through drawers, jewelry boxes and pockets to find any pins you may already have. Ask your friends and relatives if they have any pins you could have.
* Exhibit Booths—Trade shows, conventions, or special events often have exhibit booths that give out free items, including free pins. SDA organizations and institutions, such as academies, colleges, universities, TV stations, ADRA, food industries, or publishing institutions often give out free pins at exhibit booths in places such as Pathfinder camporees, camp meetings, ASI, or General Conference sessions. This is a great way to get some free pins for trading or collecting.
*Government Offices - local, regional, state/provincial and national governments often have free pins for the asking that represent the area. They see it as a form of advertising and a way to promote civic pride, so will send pins out if asked nicely.
* Companies and Organizations— Many companies and organizations will send you a free pin(s) by simply writing them a letter. Do a little investigative work and find out what companies are sponsoring sporting events, the Olympics, etc. Chamber of Commerce and tourism offices are good places to ask for pins that represent your own town. You will be amazed at what you might get for the cost of a postage stamp or email. National Organizing Committees and Sports Associations are also a good source for pins and information. Be sure and write a thank-you letter if they send you a free pin!

===Inexpensive Pins=== 
* Secondhand Pins— You can sometimes find some inexpensive pins at yard sales, thrift stores, antique stores, flea markets, or swap meets.
* Internet— Another place to sometimes find inexpensive pins is on sites like eBay or Craigslist. Buying individual pins this way is usually not your best deal, but sometimes you can find some good deals by buying pin lots. A pin lot is a group of pins being sold all together, and the cost for each pin can be less than buying individual pins.
* Handmade Pins— You can make your own pins for trading. You can turn just about any small item into a pin by attaching a pin back or safety pin to it. Pin backs can be purchased online or at a craft store. For ideas on how to make handmade pins, you can do an internet search on “Girl Scout SWAPS.”
* Buttons— Although not as popular as pins, buttons can also be traded in certain venues, such as Pathfinder camporees. They are less expensive to make than pins. Buttons may be perceived as less valuable than pins, so they may be harder to trade.

===Pathfinder Pins=== 
* Club pins— If your club designs and makes a pin, these are great for trading at Pathfinder camporees.
Your club may give you one or more pins, or you may be able to order extras to have for trading.
* Conference or Union pins—Your conference or union may give you a pin at a camporee or other event which can be added to your collection or used for trading. You may also be able to order some extrasfor trading.
* Vendors at the Camporee—There are a number of people who specifically design Pathfinder pins to sellat the camporees.

===Miscellaneous Pins=== 
The following are some places where new pins are sold:
* Amusement or theme parks
* Aquariums and zoos
* Internet
* Museums
* State or national parks
* Tourist shops
* Truck stops
* Vendors at pin trading venues, such as Disney or the Olympics


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When you are ready to trade you need to find a way to carry your pins around. You want to display your pins so that they are easy to see. In general, if you wear or show a pin, it’s available for trade. If you are wearing a non-trader, keep it apart from your traders and make sure the other person knows it’s not available for trading.
Always ask permission before touching another person’s pins.
The following are some methods of displaying your pins.
* Cardboard
* CD case
* Cork board
* Craft foam sheet
* Day pack
* Fanny pack
* Felt square
* Handkerchief
* Hand towel
* Hat
* Lanyard
* Paper plate
* Pin book
* Scarf
* Styrofoam
* Vest
* Washcloth


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===Disneyland/Walt Disney World=== 
Disney has always offered collectible Disney pins in each of its parks, but with the kickoff of the Millennium Celebration in October 1999 at Walt Disney World, they began a new tradition of Disney Pin Trading. Now thousands of guests trade each day with Cast Members as well as other guests throughout the parks and resorts. There are pins for the various attractions and characters in the parks, as well as anything else associated with Disney. Disney has their own set of rules for pin trading, which include only trading official metal Disney pins. For the official set of Disney rules, see this link:
http://disney.go.com/eventservices/howtopintrade.pdf

===Little League Baseball=== 


Trading baseball pins is a long-standing tradition in Little League Baseball. After the game is over, the pin trading fun begins, with each team making a special pin just for trading. In fact, the trading of baseball pins can get almost as competitive as the game itself. Filling up a collection with the coolest pins around has become a hobby for youth league players and parents alike.

===Olympic Games=== 
The tradition of Olympic pin trading is very popular, with some now calling it “the number one spectator sport of the Olympic Games.” Pin trading has also been more and more exciting as more and more pins are released.
There are pins for each of the different sporting events, sponsor pins, venue pins, and pins with the Olympic mascots on them. New pins are released each day of the Olympics. It's a great way to meet people and have fun at the same time while collecting souvenirs of the Olympics.

===Pasadena Tournament of Roses Game and Parade=== 
Pin trading is an annual tradition of the Rose Parade, held in Pasadena, California every year on January 1 or 2.Participating teams, marching bands, floats, sponsors, and the parade's Grand Marshall each have their own custom pin for trading.

===Pathfinder Camporees=== 
Pin trading is very popular at the big international Pathfinder camporees. Some divisions, unions, and conferences may also have pin trading at their camporees.

===Other Possible Places to Find Pin Traders=== 
Some events like college and professional sports events, such as a national championship, may have pin trading.
You do not have to attend the games, just hang out with fans before or after the game and show your interest in pins. Political campaign rallies are also an opportunity to find pin traders. Festivals allow you to interact with other people, so consider music festivals, cultural festivals and holiday festivals. Tourist attractions such as national parks, museums, amusement or theme parks and historical attractions can also help you find pin traders from around the world. Restaurants such as Hard Rock Café, and organizations like the Lions Club or Scouting,
also have pin trading. There are also internet sites where people can trade pins. Facebook has a number of pin trading sites. These are usually dedicated to one specific type of pins, such as Pathfinder pins, Disney pins, Lions Club pins, etc.


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===Fun=== 
* The main thing to remember about pin trading is that this hobby is more than just about pins. It is about having fun and it provides a great way to meet people worldwide and make some new friends. Meeting new people and having fun is more important than the pins.
* Don’t go pin trading by yourself. It’s safer and more fun to have an adult or another friend with you.
Younger children should always have an adult with them when trading.
* It’s not fun to be pressured into a trade. It’s only a good trade if both parties are satisfied after the trade. It is always acceptable to suggest another pin or to politely say, “No thanks,” if you are not happy with the proposed trade.
* Don’t get greedy and try to get a certain pin at any cost. If you find yourself getting angry or upset, then you are not having fun anymore, neither are the people around you, and it is defeating the purpose of pin trading.

===Fair=== 
* In general you should expect to trade one for one when pins are of approximately equal size and quality. Trade one pin at a time, hand to hand, with the pin backs attached or closed.
* At times someone may want to trade multiple pins for a single pin. This is only acceptable if the value of that single pin is substantially higher than the pins the other person is providing.
* Ultimately, YOU are the one who places value on a pin based on how beautiful, interesting, or desirable the pin is to you for whatever reason, and how much you are willing to trade for it. Just because someone tells you that a pin is valuable because not very many were made doesn’t necessarily make it valuable to YOU if it’s not a pin that you like or want to add to your collection.* If you are unsure about the value of a pin or the fairness of a proposed trade, seek the advice of a more experienced pin trader.
* Learn about the pins you collect and pass on the knowledge to others when you trade. If you don’t know details about a pin, say so. Honesty is always the best policy. Knowing something about a pin will help you to make a fair trade.
* Don’t knowingly trade broken or damaged pins unless you tell the person you are trading with that it is broken, and that if they want it anyway, you are willing to trade it.
* Never steal pins from anyone. Get your pins honestly.
* Only trade with one person at a time, and never interrupt a trade in progress. Be patient and wait your turn. If someone tries to interrupt your trade, politely tell them you’re in the middle of a trade and you’ll be with them soon.

===Friendly=== 
* Smile and talk to the person you want to trade with if you speak the same language. Find out their name and where they are from.
* Even if you don’t speak their language, you can still communicate and trade pins by smiling, pointing, and nodding or shaking your head.
* Always be polite, even if other people aren’t.
* If you see another pin trader, ask if you can look at their pins. If you see a pin you want, just say, "I see a pin I like. Do you see anything of mine you like?"
* When you are looking at another trader's pins and don't see anything of interest to you, don't insult them by saying things like, “All the pins you have are junk,” or "I don’t like any of your pins," or, “Your pins aren’t worth anything.” Instead you can say something like, "You have some nice pins, but I don’t see anything I can use right now,” or, “I want to look around a little more before I decide.”
* If the other person has a pin you want but they don't want any of your pins, ask them what they want in trade. Then you can go and try to trade for the pin they want, and go back and trade with them.
* Sometimes if someone really wants a pin, you can trade with them, even if they don’t really have something you want, just to make them happy.
* Always say, “Thank you,” to the person for letting you look at their pins, or for trading with you.


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{{Bible verse
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|chapter=6
|verse=19-21
|text=
“Do not store up for yourselves treasures on earth, where moths and vermin destroy, and where thieves break in and steal. But store up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where moths and vermin do not destroy,and where thieves do not break in and steal. For where your treasure is, there your heart will be also.”
}}


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Trading and collecting pins can be a really fun hobby, but it’s important to remember that pins are just “things” and they will all be destroyed in the end anyway. So don’t get so focused and obsessive about getting pins that you forget about your ultimate treasure, which is Jesus and His kingdom. Always remember that people, not pins, are what is most important. Think of making others happy, not just yourself. Also, trading pins gives you opportunities to meet people that you otherwise wouldn’t talk to, and you might someday have an opportunity to share your faith with someone that you trade pins with.


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We can learn to see people the way Jesus sees them, and to treat them the way Jesus would treat them. We can practice being kind, loving, helpful, patient, and polite as we are trading pins, because that’s the way Jesus would be towards others.


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Behaviors and attitudes to avoid include:
* Selfishness and greed.
* Trying to get a pin at any cost.
* Taking advantage of others.
* Pressuring someone to make a trade.
* Interrupting someone who is in the middle of a trade.
* Being rude and hurting people’s feelings by saying negative things about their pins.
* Selling a pin at an exorbitant price to someone who really, really wants it.
* Getting in a fight over a pin.
* Getting angry and upset if you don’t get a pin you want.
* Stealing pins.
* Lying or being deceptive about pins.


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This can take place at a Pathfinder camporee, Disneyland/Disney World, the Rose Parade, the Olympics, sporting events, or any other venue where pin trading takes place. Remember that pin trading is not just about pins, but it is about meeting new people, so take time to talk to the people you are trading with and learn something about them. And remember to practice the “Fun, Fair, Friendly” rules of etiquette that you learned.


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==References== 
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AY Honors/Māori Lore/Answer Key

2021-09-20T20:38:29Z

BoisSar:

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[[Image:Marae, Raiatea 2.jpg|thumb|390px|Taputapuātea, an ancient marae at Ra'iātea in the Society Islands, restored in 1994.]]A '''marae''' is a sacred place which served both religious and social purposes in pre-Christian Polynesian societies and in some modern Polynesian societies, such as Māori, today. In all these languages, the word also means "cleared, free of weeds, trees, etc." It generally consists of an area of cleared land roughly rectangular (the marae itself), bordered with stones or wooden posts (called ''au'' in Tahitian and Cook Islands Māori) perhaps with terraces (''paepae'') which were used in olden times for ceremonial purposes; and with a central stone ''ahu'' or ''a'u'' (sometimes as in the Rapanui culture's ahu on Easter Island "ahu" becomes a synonym for the whole marae complex).

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A Pōwhiri is a Māori welcoming ceremony involving speeches, dancing, singing and hongi. It can be performed both to welcome guests onto a marae or during other ceremonies, such as during a dedication of a building (where the performers might welcome the owners or future users of the building). A pōwhiri is not performed for every group of manuhiri (visitors). It is often reserved for special visitors or for tupapaku (the arrival of the body of the deceased) for a tangihanga (funeral). However, powhiri are also often performed for tourist groups as part of special events.
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'''Karakia''' is the Māori word for incantations and prayers. Karakia are generally used to ensure a favourable outcome of important untertakings. They are also considered a formal greeting when beginning a ceremony. According to legend, in the village of Ruatoria, there was a curse on the Waiapu River which was lifted when Hori Keeti performed Karakia.

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''Mate'' means "death" in Māori. "Ka Mate" is a Māori ''haka'' composed by Te Rauparaha, war leader of the Ngāti Toa tribe of the North Island of New Zealand:
the main body of the haka:


{| class="wikitable"
|--
|Ka mate, ka mate! ka ora! ka ora!
Ka mate! ka mate! ka ora! ka ora!


Tēnei te tangata pūhuruhuru


Nāna nei i tiki mai whakawhiti te rā


Ā, upane! ka upane!


Ā, upane, ka upane, whiti te ra!
|’Tis death! ‘tis death! ''(or: I may die)'' ’Tis life! ‘tis life! ''(or: I may live)''
’Tis death! ‘tis death! ’Tis life! ‘tis life!


This the hairy man that stands here...


…who brought the sun and caused it to shine


A step upward, another step upward!


A step upward, another... the Sun shines!
|}

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Waiata is the Māori word for song.

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Kōrero is the spoken word. Māori is a culture based on Kōrero, the oral tradition. Māori place as much importance on the spoken word as Western cultures place on the written word. In the Western world, people are bound by written contracts and laws are written down before they may come into effect. In Māori, Kōrero is binding.


[http://www.maori.org.nz/Tikanga/default.asp?pid=sp100&parent=95 www.maori.org.nz].

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[[Image:MaoriWardanceKahuroa.jpg|thumb|260px|The haka is a traditional genre of Māori dance. This depiction of a haka as a war dance dates from ca. 1845.]]
A haka is a traditional dance form. It is a posture dance with shouted accompaniment, performed by a group. Although the use of a haka by the ''All Blacks'' (a rugby team) has made one type of haka familiar, it has led to misconceptions. Haka are not exclusively war dances, nor are they only performed by men. Some are performed by women, others by mixed groups, and some simple haka are performed by children. Haka are performed for various reasons: for amusement, as a hearty welcome to distinguished guests, or to acknowledge great achievements or occasions. War haka, which had their own term, 'peruperu', were originally performed by warriors before a battle, proclaiming their strength and prowess in order to intimidate the opposition. Today, haka constitute an integral part of formal or official welcome ceremonies for distinguished visitors or foreign dignitaries, serving to impart a sense of the importance of the occasion.

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''Kuia'' (also ''kui'') is the Māori word for "grandmother".

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In the Māori language, ''Tāne'' means "man".

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In the Māori language, ''Wero'' means "challenge". At the beginning of a Powhiri, the people must first determine if the visitors have peaceful intentions or not. This is done through the wero which literally means "to cast a spear." The warriors performing the wero will make frightening gestures with spears. Once the challenge is complete, the warriors will guide the visitors to the marae where they will be welcomed by the women and children.

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In Polynesian culture (for example, Hawaiian and Māori), mana is a spiritual quality considered to have supernatural origin – a sacred impersonal force existing in the universe. Therefore to have ''mana'' is to have influence and authority, and efficacy – the power to perform in a given situation. This essential quality of ''mana'' is not limited to persons – peoples, governments, places and inanimate objects can possess ''mana''. In Hawaiian, ''mana loa'' means "great power". People or objects that possess ''mana'' are accorded "respect"; because their possession of ''mana'' gives them "authority", "power", and "prestige". In Māori, a tribe that has ''mana whenua'' is considered to have demonstrated their authority over a given piece of land or territory. The word’s meaning is complex because ''mana'' is a basic foundation of the Polynesian worldview.


The magazine ''Māori Law Review'' suggests two essential aspects to a Māori person's ''mana'':


* ''mana tangata'', authority derived from ''whakapapa'' connections, and
* ''mana huaanga'', defined as "authority derived from having a wealth of resources to gift to others to bind them into reciprocal obligations".

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Manuhiri are visitors. Locals and visitors have to respect certain rules, especially during the rituals of encounter. This is when the phrase tāngata whenua (people of the land) comes into play. Should a group of people come to stay on a marae, they are considered manuhiri (guests) while the owners of the marae are known as tāngata whenua. Should other groups of manuhiri arrive, the manuhiri who arrived previously - regardless of their race - are considered tāngata whenua for the purposes of formally welcoming the new group. When Māori refer to themselves as tāngata whenua this is not done solely to emphasise their indigenous status, as is often assumed, because the connotation in Māori of the phrase is one not of separation but rather of welcome and inclusion.

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A '''Hongi''' is a traditional Māori greeting in New Zealand. It is done by pressing one's nose to another person at an encounter. See below.

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A hui is a New Zealand Māori social gathering or assembly in a Māori community.

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Poroporoaki is the final farewell during a ''powhiri''. When the poroporoaki is concluded, the ''mana'' returns to the host. It is a solemn occasion during which the people reflect on the welcome they have received, and recognize that they may not experience another ''powhiri'' before their death.

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Whānau is a Māori-language word for extended family. Other meanings, though less commonly used in English, are to give birth, or genus.

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Tangi is a Māori funeral rite.

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''Aroha'' can be best translated as "love," but the meaning is deeper than that. The Māori believe that ''Aroha'' is the force that binds the universe together.

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Whakairo is a Māori form of carving. Carvings are made from wood, jade, bone, or basalt.

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''Koro'' is a Māori chief.

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Kaumatua are respected tribal elders of either gender in a Māori community who have been involved with their whānau for a number of years. They are appointed by their people who believe the chosen elders have the capacity to teach and guide both current and future generations.

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''Wahine'' is the Māori word for "woman".

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A Māori word literally meaning "homage" or "respect".

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Whaikorero means "formal speech" or "oration".

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Tangata whenua is a Māori term literally meaning "people of the land", from tangata, 'people' and whenua land. In the context of tribal descent and ownership of land, tangata whenua are the people who descend from the first people to settle the land of the district, whereas the actual mana may reside with later arrivals. However, in the context of a marae, the tangata whenua are the owners of the marae, in contradistinction to the manuhiri or guests. After the welcoming ceremony on a marae, the guests may be afforded the temporary, honorary status of tangata whenua, and may even be invited to participate as locals as the ceremonies continue. In the national context of New Zealand, Māori are the tangata whenua, and in this sense the term is equivalent to 'indigenous'.

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A taonga in Māori culture is a treasured thing, whether tangible or intangible. Tangible examples are all sorts of heirlooms and artefacts, land and fisheries. Intangible examples may include language, spiritual beliefs, radio frequencies and riparian rights.

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[[File:Polynesian Migration.svg|thumb|600px|center|<center>Polynesian migration routes</center>]]

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Various Māori traditions recount how their ancestors set out from a mythical homeland in great ocean-going canoes (or waka). Some of these traditions name the homeland as Hawaiki.

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Various Māori traditions recount how their ancestors set out from a mythical homeland in great ocean-going canoes (or waka). Some of these traditions name the homeland as Hawaiki.


Among these is the story of Kupe, who had eloped with Kuramarotini, the wife of Hoturapa, the owner of the great canoe Matahourua, whom Kupe had murdered. To escape punishment for the murder, Kupe and Kura fled in Matahourua and discovered a land he called Aotearoa ('long-white-cloud'). He explored its coast and killed the sea monster Te Wheke-a-Muturangi, finally returning to his home to spread news of his newly discovered land.


Other stories of various other tribes report migrations to escape famine, over-population, and warfare. These were made in legendary canoes, the best known of which are Aotea, Arawa, Kurahaupō, Mataatua, Tainui, Tākitimu, and Tokomaru. Various traditions name numerous other canoes. Some, including the Āraiteuru, are well known; others including the Kirauta and the sacred Arahura and Mahangaatuamatua are little known. Rather than arriving in a single fleet, the journeys may have occurred over several centuries.


An important early collector and preserver of Māori traditions was the surveyor and ethnologist Stephenson Percy Smith. He believed that while the Polynesian traditions may have been flawed in detail, they preserved the threads of truth which could be recovered using a method already well established for Hawaiian traditions by Fornander (1878-1885). This method involved seeking out common elements of tradition from different sources, and aligning these to genealogies to give a time frame for the events. Abraham Fornander, Smith, and others used this method to reconstruct the migrations of the Polynesians, tracing them back to a supposed ancient homeland in India.


S. Percy Smith used the Fornander method, combining disparate traditions from various parts of New Zealand and other parts of Polynesia, to derive a now discredited version of Māori migration to New Zealand -- the 'Great Fleet' hypothesis. Through an examination of the genealogies of various tribes, he came up with a set of precise dates for his 'Great Fleet' and the explorers that he and others posited as having paved the way for the fleet.


According to Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Smith’s account went as follows. In 750 AD the Polynesian explorer Kupe discovered an uninhabited New Zealand. Then in 1000–1100 AD, the Polynesian explorers Toi and Whātonga visited New Zealand, and found it inhabited by a primitive, nomadic people known as the Moriori. Finally, in 1350 AD a ‘great fleet’ of seven canoes – Aotea, Kurahaupō, Mataatua, Tainui, Tokomaru, Te Arawa and Tākitimu – all departed from the Tahitian region at the same time, bringing the people now known as Māori to New Zealand. These were advanced, warlike, agricultural tribes who destroyed the Moriori." The great fleet scenario won general acceptance, its adherents even including the famous Māori ethnologist Te Rangi Hīroa (Sir Peter Buck), and was taught in New Zealand schools. However it was effectively demolished during the 1960s by the ethnologist David Simmons, who showed that it derived from an incomplete and indiscriminate study of Māori tradition as recorded in the 19th Century. Simmons also suggests that some of these 'migrations' may actually have been journeys within New Zealand.


Historian Rāwiri Taonui, writing in 2006 for the website Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, accuses Smith of falsification: "The Great Fleet theory was the result of a collaboration between the 19th-century ethnologist S. Percy Smith and the Māori scholar Hoani Te Whatahoro Jury. Smith obtained details about places in Rarotonga and Tahiti during a visit in 1897, while Jury provided information about Māori canoes in New Zealand. Smith then ‘cut and pasted’ his material, combining several oral traditions into new ones. Their joint work was published in two books, in which Jury and Smith falsely attributed much of their information to two 19th-century tohunga, Moihi Te Mātorohanga and Nēpia Pōhūhū" (Taonui 2006).

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{{Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Problematic requirement
|"Make in the canoe" is obviously a grammatical gaffe.It was most probably supposed to say to "mark".
|Draw or trace a map of New Zealand showing all the major tribal areas, and the name of the canoe for each.
}}


[[Image:IwiMap.png|Tribal areas of New Zealand]]


These are the seven legendary canoes proposed by historian Stephenson Percy Smith in his "Great Fleet hypothesis." Various traditions name numerous other canoes.


{| class="wikitable"
! '''Name of Canoe'''
! '''Regional Traditions'''
! '''Associated Iwi or Hapu'''
|-
| Aotea || Taranaki, Waikato || Ngā Rauru Kītahi, Ngāti Ruanui
|-
| Te Arawa || Bay of Plenty, East Coast, Waikato || Ngāti Tūwharetoa, Te Arawa
|-
| Kurahaupō || Northland, Taranaki || Ngati Apa, Ngāti Kurī, Ngati Ruanui
|-
| Mataatua || Bay of Plenty, Northland || Ngā Puhi, Ngāi Te Rangi, Ngāti Awa, Ngāti Pūkenga, Te Whakatōhea
|-
| Tainui || Auckland, Bay of Plenty, Taranaki, Waikato || Ngāti Raukawa Ngāti Maniapoto, Ngāti Maru, Ngāti Pāoa, Ngāti Rongoū, Ngāti Tamaterā, Ngāti Whanaunga
|-
| Tākitimu || Bay of Plenty, East Coast, South Island || Muriwhenua, Ngāti Kahungunu, Ngāti Ranginui, Ngāi Tahu
|-
| Tokomaru || Taranaki || Ngati Tama, Ngati Mutunga, Ngati Rāhiri, Manukorihi, Puketapu, Te Atiawa, Ngati Maru
|-
|}

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[[Image:Rangitoto island from north head.jpg|thumb|600px|left|Rangitoto Island as viewed from North Head.]]
Rangitoto Island is a volcanic island in the Hauraki Gulf near Auckland, New Zealand. Rangitoto is Māori for 'Bloody Sky', with the name coming from the full phrase Nga Rangi-i-totongia-a Tama-te-kapua ('The days of the bleeding of Tama-te-kapua').
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{{Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Problematic requirement
|This honor originated in the SPD, targeted a New Zealand Pathfinders who could visit a marae event with reasonable ease. When accepted by the GC is was not modified to reflect the goal of making all honors accessible to all Pathfinders.
|Suggested alternative requirement: Research a marae and write a report detailing their history and structure.
}}
A hui can be called for many reasons, including a wedding, birth, funeral, or even a meeting to discuss community decisions.


If you arrive at the marae before the rest of your group, wait for them before entering. Visitors are always welcomed in groups, and to enter all by yourself is a violation of protocol. When your whole group has arrived, you may enter the marae, and you will be welcomed in a powhiri ceremony.


It might be a good idea to bring a small notebook and pen along so you can take notes about what is happening. A hui follows a prescribed structure. If you do not understand everything that happens, ask your host afterwards.

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As described previously, ''mate'' means "death" in Māori.


Tangihanga, or more commonly, Tangi, is a Māori funeral rite. Tangihanga takes place at a marae, and each manuhiri (visiting group) receives a pohiri (formal greeting). Some tribes will not perform a pohiri after dark, so the visitors must arrive before dusk.


A collection is taken up to defray the costs of embalming, to defray the costs of the marae, or both.


On the final night of the tangihanga, people tell stories, sing, and tell jokes to help cheer the grieving family. Burial takes place the following day. After the body is lowered into the grave, people are given an opportunity to say a final farewell. Then everyone present files by the grave and throws in either a flower or a handful of soil.


If the deceased lived near the cemetery, the people go there after the burial and bless the house. Otherwise, this is done sometime later. After the house blessing, a Hakari (final feast) is held, during which people will speak or perform. The Hakari is a celebration and affirmation of life.

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Food was considered communal property among the Māori. It was distributed by an official who was placed in charge of the food warehouse. Communal ownership of food prevented an unlucky fisherman (and his family) from going hungry.


Before contact with Europeans was established, the Māori diet consisted primarily of vegetables, though fish was not an uncommon food. They correctly believed that diet affected health, and that regular bowels were an important aspect of general health.


The Māori ate two meals per day. Breakfast was eaten a few hours after waking, and dinner was eaten in the early evening. A light snack sufficed for lunch.

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The history of individual tribal groups is kept by means of narratives, songs and chants, hence the importance of music, story and poetry. Oratory, the making of speeches, is especially important in the rituals of encounter, and it is regarded as important for a speaker to include allusions to traditional narrative and to a complex system of proverbial sayings, called whakataukī.


Formal speeches are delivered at marae, and as the orator speaks, he re-enacts portions of the Māori creation story when Tāne separated the earth (his mother) from the sky (his father), thus allowing himself and his siblings to see light. During the oration, this re-enactment represents light (or understanding) coming to the people.

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In some cases, guests to a marae may spend the night. When this happens, the hosts provide mattresses on the floor, but no beds. Everyone sleeps in a common room, and the guests are not separated by gender.


It is considered ''very'' bad manners to step over the body of a sleeping person. Stepping over a person's head is absolutely forbidden, as a person's head is considered the most ''tapu'' (sacred) part of a person.


The Māori also observe customs to determine where guests and hosts sleep. The guests sleep in the tapu part of the house, which is located along the right wall as one enters the building. Hosts sleep on the ''noa'' (common) side which is on the left. Further, the chief among the visitors will sleep in the corner near a window, and visitors are ordered in a way which is related to the order in which they speak.

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Of the Māori who claim a religion, 98% today identify themselves as Christian. The largest denominations in the 2006 census were Anglicans (about 14% of the population), Catholics (about 12%), Presbyterians (about 9%), and Methodists (about 3%). Around 5% of the population identified themselves as Christian without associating themselves with any particular denomination.


For the purposes of this requirement though, we will not consider these as "Māori" religions, as they were introduced by the Europeans. "The" two Māori religions in use today could arguably be the original Māori religion practiced before the Europeans arrived, and Ratana.

====Māori Religion==== 
Traditional Māori religion, that is, the pre-European belief system of the Māori, was little modified from that of their tropical Eastern Polynesian homeland (Hawaiki Nui), conceiving of everything, including natural elements and all living things as connected by common descent through whakapapa or genealogy. Accordingly, all things were thought of as possessing a life force or mauri. As an illustration of this concept of connectedness through genealogy, consider a few of the major personifications of pre-contact times: Tangaroa was the personification of the ocean and the ancestor or origin of all fish; Tāne was the personification of the forest and the origin of all birds; and Rongo was the personification of peaceful activities and agriculture and the ancestor of cultivation.


Certain practices are followed that relate to traditional concepts like tapu. Certain people and objects contain mana - spiritual power or essence. In earlier times, tribal members of a higher rank would not touch objects which belonged to members of a lower rank. This was considered "pollution" and persons of a lower rank could not touch the belongings of a highborn person without putting themselves at risk of death.


Tapu can be interpreted as "sacred", as "spiritual restriction" or "implied prohibition"; it involves rules and prohibitions. There are two kinds of tapu, the private (relating to individuals) and the public tapu (relating to communities). A person, an object or a place, which is tapu, may not be touched by human contact, in some cases, not even approached. A person, object or a place could be made sacred by tapu for a certain time.


In pre-contact society, tapu was one of the strongest forces in Māori life. A violation of tapu could have dire consequences, including the death of the offender through sickness or at the hands of someone affected by the offence. In earlier times food cooked for a person of high rank was tapu, and could not be eaten by an inferior. A chief's house was tapu, and even the chief could not eat food in the interior of his house. Not only were the houses of people of high rank perceived to be tapu, but also their possessions including their clothing. Burial grounds and places of death were always tapu, and these areas were often surrounded by a protective fence.

====Ratana==== 
The Ratana movement is a Māori religion and pan-tribal political movement founded by Tahupotiki Wiremu Ratana in early 20th century New Zealand. The Ratana Church has its headquarters at the settlement of Ratana, near Wanganui.


The first decades of the twentieth century were a low point for Māori, both in numbers and in spirit. During the nineteenth century, Māori lost their tribal way of life, lands, traditional religion and their mana. Christianity had been accepted, but the missionaries had acted as chaplains to the colonial forces fighting against their Christian converts who were defending their land. Many Māori regarded the missionary clergy as agents of the Government in a deep-laid plot to subjugate the Māori people.


From the 1860s, prophets such as Te Ua Haumene, Te Kooti, Te Whiti o Rongomai and Tohu Kakahi put the words of the Bible into terms Māori could understand. The dislocation of colonialism had strained Māori society and led to a belief in a saviour to come.


In 1918, Tahupotiki Wiremu Ratana saw a vision, which he regarded as divinely inspired, asking him to preach the gospel to the Māori people, to destroy the power of the tohunga and to cure the spirits and bodies of his people. Until 1924, he preached to increasingly large numbers of Māori, and T.W. Ratana established a name for himself as the "Māori Miracle Man". Initially, the movement was seen as a Christian revival but it soon moved away from mainstream churches. On 31 May 1925, Te Haahi Ratana (The Ratana Church) was formally established as a separate church, with its founder acknowledged as Te Mangai or the mouthpiece of God. Hostile attitudes have caused the church to be guarded towards its teaching and founder.

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[[Image:WahineTane.jpg|right|260px|thumb|right|Papa and Rangi held each other in a tight embrace]] In Māori mythology the primal couple Rangi and Papa (or Ranginui and Papatuanuku) appear in a creation myth explaining the origin of the world.


Rangi and Papa are the primordial parents, the sky father and the earth mother who lie locked together in a tight embrace. They have many children all of which are male, who are forced to live in the cramped darkness between them. These children grow and discuss among themselves what it would be like to live in the light. Tūmatauenga, the fiercest of the children, proposes that the best solution to their predicament is to kill their parents.


But his brother Tāne (or Tāne-mahuta) disagrees, suggesting that it is better to push them apart, to let Rangi (their father) be as a stranger to them in the sky above while Papa (their mother) will remain below to nurture them. The others put their plans into action—Rongo, the god of cultivated food, tries to push his parents apart, then Tangaroa, the god of the sea, and his sibling Haumia-tiketike, the god of wild food, join him. In spite of their joint efforts Rangi and Papa remain close together in their loving embrace. After many attempts Tāne, god of forests and birds, forces his parents apart. Instead of standing upright and pushing with his hands as his brothers have done, he lies on his back and pushes with his strong legs. Stretching every sinew Tāne pushes and pushes until, with cries of grief and surprise, Ranginui and Papatuanuku are forced apart.


And so the children of Rangi and Papa see light and have space to move for the first time. While the other children have agreed to the separation Tāwhirimātea, the god of storms and winds, is angered that the parents have been torn apart. He cannot not bear to hear the cries of his parents nor see the tears of the Rangi as they are parted, he promises his siblings that from henceforth they will have to deal with his anger. He flies off to join Rangi and there carefully fosters his own many offspring who include the winds, one of whom is sent to each quarter of the compass. To fight his brothers, Tāwhirimātea gathers an army of his children—winds and clouds of different kinds, including fierce squalls, whirlwinds, gloomy thick clouds, fiery clouds, hurricane clouds and thunderstorm clouds, and rain, mists and fog. As these winds show their might the dust flies and the great forest trees of Tāne are smashed under the attack and fall to the ground, food for decay and for insects.


Then Tāwhirimātea attacks the oceans and huge waves rise, whirlpools form, and Tangaroa, the god of the sea, flees in panic. Punga, a son of Tangaroa, has two children, Ikatere father of fish, and Tu-te-wehiwehi (or Tu-te-wanawana) the ancestor of reptiles. Terrified by Tāwhirimātea’s onslaught the fish seek shelter in the sea and the reptiles in the forests. Ever since Tangaroa has been angry with Tāne for giving refuge to his runaway children. So it is that Tāne supplies the descendants of Tūmatauenga with canoes, fishhooks and nets to catch the descendants of Tangaroa. Tangaroa retaliates by swamping canoes and sweeping away houses, land and trees that are washed out to sea in floods.


Tāwhirimātea next attacks his brothers Rongo and Haumia-tiketike, the gods of cultivated and uncultivated foods. Rongo and Haumia are in great fear of Tāwhirimātea but, as he attacks them, Papa determines to keep these for her other children and hides them so well that Tāwhirimātea cannot find them. So Tāwhirimātea turns on his brother Tūmatauenga. He uses all his strength but Tūmatauenga stands fast and Tāwhirimatea cannot prevail against him. Tū (or humankind) stands fast and, at last, the anger of the gods subsided and peace prevailed.


Tū thought about the actions of Tāne in separating their parents and made snares to catch the birds, the children of Tāne who could no longer fly free. He then makes nets from forest plants and casts them in the sea so that the children of Tangaroa soon lie in heaps on the shore. He made hoes to dig the ground, capturing his brothers Rongo and Haumia-tiketike where they have hidden from Tāwhirimātea in the bosom of the earth mother and, recognising them by their long hair that remains above the surface of the earth, he drags them forth and heaps them into baskets to be eaten. So Tūmatauenga eats all of his brothers to repay them for their cowardice; the only brother that Tūmatauenga does not subdue is Tāwhirimātea, whose storms and hurricanes attack humankind to this day.

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;before 1893: Maui Pomare, a Māori youth is baptized as a Seventh-day Adventist in Napier.
;1893: Pomare travels to the U.S. to study medicine at the Seventh-day Adventist Church medical college at Battle Creek, Michigan.
;1895: Pomare publishes a pamphlet in the Māori language arguing that the seventh day is the Sabbath.
;1900: Pomare returns to New Zealand and was selected to serve as Māori Health Officer in the Department of Health. In this role he undertook a number of major campaigns to improve Māori health and met with considerable success. He eventually leaves the Adventist Church.
;1902: First Adventist school opens in New Zealand at Ponsonby
;1903: Adventist school opened in Christschurch. Both schools fail due to lack of resources.
;1903-1905: Adventist schools opened in Napier, Lower Hutt, Petone and New Plymouth.
;1908: School opened near Cambridge and named "Pukekura", Māori for "I love the place."
;1913: Pukekura relocated to its current site at Longburn Adventist College near Palmerston North.
;next 100 years?

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In the book ''Tikanga Māori'' Hirini Moko Mead describes the Māori attitude to religion this way:
{|border=1 cellspacing=1 cellpadding=5 align=center
|-
|style="background:#ffffc0"|
:''The concept of tapu is an important element in all tikange. The source of''
:''tapu goes to the heart of Māori religious thought and even though a majority''
:''of Māori are members of some Christian church or sect the notion of tapu''
:''holds. It is not really a matter of choosing one religion over another.''
:''Rather it has to do with integrating different philosophies and making an ''
:''attempt at reconciling apparent contradictions.''
<p>
:::'''— Hirini Moko Mead'''
|}

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===Tukutuku===
A tukutuku is a woven wall hanging traditionally made from flax. New Zealand flax describes common New Zealand perennial plants ''Phormium tenax'' and ''Phormium cookianum'', known by the Māori names harakeke and wharariki respectively. They are quite distinct from ''Linum usitatissimum'', the Northern Hemisphere plant known as flax (and also known as linseed). The genus was given the common name 'flax' by Anglophone Europeans as it too could be used for its fibres.



{{TODO|Add instruction for making a tukutuku panel|Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book}}


Tukutuku panels are a traditional Māori art form. They are decorative wall panels that were once part of the traditional wall construction used inside meeting houses. Originally tukutuku were made by creating a latticework of vertically and horizontally placed dried stalks of kākaho, the creamy-gold flower stalks of toetoe grass, and kākaka, long straight fern stalks, or wooden laths of rimu or tōtara, called variously kaho tara, kaho tarai or arapaki.


These panels were lashed or stitched together. This was done by people working in pairs from either side, using the rich yellow strands of pīngao, white bleached or black-dyed kiekie, and sometimes harakeke, to create a range of intricate and artistic patterns. Stitches were combined to form a variety of patterns. Groups of single stitches created patterns such as tapuae kautuku, waewae pakura, whakarua kopito and papakirango. Some of the traditional cross stitched patterns are poutama, waharua, purapura whetu or mangaroa, kaokao, pātikitiki, roimata toroa and niho taniwha. In some situations, a central vertical stake, tumatahuki, was lashed to the panel to aid its strength and stability.


This method of construction created a warm, insulating type of decorative wallboard. Later, painted wooden slats or half-rounds were used for the horizontal element. Today, however, such dry flammable wallboards would fail to meet modern building regulations, and they are no longer used in construction. When used nowadays, tukutuku panels are created for their aesthetic appeal and attached to structurally approved building materials.

===Tipare=== 
A tipare is a headband woven from flax. You can make one from paper if you do not have access to flax, or you could use any broad-leaved grass. These instructions are adapted from those written by Catherine Brown in [http://teaohou.natlib.govt.nz/journals/teaohou/issue/Mao52TeA/c11.html an article written in 1965]. If using flax, run the length of the flax over the blade of a knife to soften it up. To make a tipare from paper, start by cutting it into strips 1 cm wide. You might want to practice on paper before trying this in flax, but that's up to you. The tipare illustrated below was made in paper (with the edges marked) to make it easier to understand the photos.


{|border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=1
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|[[Image:Tipare_621.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] Mark a 60° angle on one strip, not in the center, but off to either side. Fold the strip into a V along the 60° line with the left side over the right. This angle is critical, so make it as close to 60° as you can. Place a second strip in the bottom of the V as shown, but do not center it in the notch of the V. If you make the V fold in the center or center the second strip on the notch, the two ends of the strip will run out at the same time and you will have two splices in the same vicinity. Offsetting them from the center avoids this problem.
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|[[Image:Tipare_622.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] Fold the right side of the horizontal strip behind the right leg of the V so that it lies parallel to the left leg of the V. If the 60° angle was folded properly, the second strip should fall right into place. If it does not, check the angle of that first fold again.
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[[Image:Tipare_623.jpg|thumb|300px|left]][[Image:Tipare_624.jpg|thumb|300px|right]]
Fold the other horizontal strip over the left leg of the V so that it runs along and parallel to the right leg of the V. Tuck it beneath the second strip it crosses. You should end up with a double-V, consisting of two outer legs and two inner. The rest of the weaving process will always begin with one of the outer legs. Choosing which is perhaps the most difficult part of making a tipare, but for now, choose the one on the right and fold it behind the V as shown on the right. Make sure that it goes behind two strips and over the third.
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[[Image:Tipare_625.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] Now take that same strip and fold it around the back of the strip it was just tucked in front of. Weave it in front of the adjacent strip.
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[[Image:Tipare_626.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] Fold the strip farthest to the left behind the tipare, and weave it in front of the strip farthest to the right.
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[[Image:Tipare_627.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] Fold that same strip behind the right-most strip and weave it in front of the next. The next step is to take one of the outer strips and fold it into a horizontal position, but which strip? As you make a tipare, this will be the question that vexes you after every fold, and if you get it wrong, the tipare will come out wrong as well. Look at the photo to the left. If you fold the strip on the left, you will continue the edge made along the left side. If you fold the strip on the right, you will form a point on the right side. Always choose the strip that will form a point.
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[[Image:Tipare_628.jpg|thumb|300px|left]][[Image:Tipare_629.jpg|thumb|300px|right]] There — we have chosen the strip that will form a point and have folded it horizontally. It was woven over the front of the outer strip on the other side and then folded around it and woven again.
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[[Image:Tipare_631.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] But now we've run out of strip. Cut the strip along the edge of the tipare, and cut the tip of a new strip off at the same angle. The ends of these two strips are positioned next to the pieces from which they were cut. Discard them.
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[[Image:Tipare_632.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] Now tuck the new strip into the weave, pushing it in until it stops. You should be able to push it in pretty far. There is no need for glue or any other sort of adhesive. The weave itself will hold the strip in place. Continue weaving until you have a long enough piece of tipare to wrap around the head of the intended tipare wearer.
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[[Image:Tipare_633.jpg|thumb|300px|left]][[Image:Tipare_634.jpg|thumb|300px|right]]Bend the tipare around forming a loop. Line up the beginning of the tipare with the points on the unwoven end (photo on the left). Fold the next strip on the unwoven end around the beginning, cut it to length, and tuck it into the weave (photo on the right).
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[[Image:Tipare_636.jpg|thumb|300px|left]][[Image:Tipare_641.jpg|thumb|300px|right]] Continue weaving the loose ends into the tipare, cutting them off at the proper length and tucking them into the weave. When the last strip is woven into place, the tipare is finished. Crown the recipient.
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===Mats and Baskets=== 
{{TODO|Add instruction for making a mat or basket|Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book}}
[[Image:flax basket & lid.jpg|thumb|left|Flax basket & lid]]
[[Image:Flax flower.jpg|thumb|right|Woven flax flower]]

====Preparations==== 


;Harvesting:
Flax should be cut in a certain way. Traditional weavers were conservationists — they looked after the flax plant from its growth, after harvesting, and through the whole process of usage. Māori treasure the flax plant, presumably because it was a major resource for them for many things. Never cut the center (baby blade), nor the two on either side - (mother and father). Cutting these blades will kill the plant. Return all unused flax (harekeke) and wastage to the plant cut up as mulch. Don't harvest in the rain or the flax will shrink too much after use When cutting the flax make sure you cut on an angle. This is to make sure that rain and debris does not settle in the roots and spoil the plant. Keep the flax usable for a few days by placing ends in a bucket of water as soon as you return home. Keep it out of the direct sun. To keep it longer boil it as described in the ''Dying Flax'' section below.


;Tools:
A steel bar or using the back or blunt side of a butter knife is used to soften the strips. Traditionally a mussel shell was used. The shell or blunt edge is pulled along the dull side of the flax blade and this also helps release the moisture content. Flax woven articles do shrink to a beautiful golden colour as they dry. Flax is used green or is softened by boiling as described below. Using boiled flax reduces the shrinkage in the finished article.


;Dying Flax:
Bring a pot of water to a boil, and add your flax, prepared as above in the ''Tools'' section. Boil the flax for 5 minutes and then dry it. This can be kept for later use or dyed whenever you are ready. Fill a sink or bucket with warm water and put the boiled, dry flax in the water to soften it. You can now weave with it or dye it. Use a large pot and fill two thirds with water and then add the dye to the boiling water. The amount used is up to the weaver. Return it to a boil. Finally, place your softened flax into the dye - use rubber gloves. Once the right colour is obtained, add a good handful of salt. This will set the dye or ''fix'' it to the flax fibres. Allow the dyed flax to dry, but not in the direct sun. Once it is dry you can then go through the process to soften it and weave it. If you use it straight after dying you will need to wear disposable gloves unless you want your hands to be dyed as well. But once it has dryed it will set the dye. Some people use vinegar to fix the dye. For the dye itself you can use cordial drink concentrates (Thriftee and Koolaid are brands available in New Zealand and they don't need a fixer as the citric acid in the drink concentrate and set the dye). You can mix these colours to get the one you want.

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In the Māori language, speakers distinguish correct use of the number of people referred to in all aspects of the language. For example, everyday greetings take different forms depending on the number of people greeted:


* Tēnā koe: hello (to one person)
* Tēnā kōrua: hello (to two people)
* Tēnā koutou: hello (to more than two people

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[[Image:Powhiri, USAF.jpg|thumb|right|A U.S. airman and a Māori warrior exchange a Hongi during a Pōwhiri ceremony]]
A '''Hongi''' is a traditional Māori greeting in New Zealand. It is done by pressing one's nose to another person at an encounter.


It is still used at traditional meetings among members of the Māori people and on major ceremonies.


In the hongi, the ha or breath of life is exchanged and intermingled.


Through the exchange of this physical greeting, you are no longer considered manuhiri (visitor) but rather tangata whenua, one of the people of the land. For the remainder of your stay you are obliged to share in all the duties and responsibilities of the home people. In earlier times, this may have meant bearing arms in times of war, or tending crops of kumara (sweet potato).


When Māori greet one another by pressing noses, the tradition of sharing the breath of life is considered to have come directly from the gods.


In Māori folklore, woman was created by the god Tane moulding her shape out of the earth. Then Tane (meaning male) embraced the figure and breathed into her nostrils. She then sneezed and came to life. Her name was Hineahuone (earth formed woman). Tane later had a child with her and when she found out he was her father she fled to the underworld where she was believed to look after the spirits of the dead.

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====Māori Stick Game==== 
In the Māori stick game, the participants sit in a circle and each person holds two sticks Music begins, and the sticks are then rhythmically rapped on the floor or tapped together in beat with the music. See http://www.uen.org/Lessonplan/preview.cgi?LPid=13919 for more details.

====Poi==== 
[[File:Feuerpois02.JPG|thumb|200px|Fire poi in action (long exposure)]]
Poi is a form of juggling or object manipulation employing a ball suspended from a length of rope which is held in hand and swung in circular patterns, comparable to club-twirling. Poi spinning originated with the Māori people of New Zealand (the word poi means "ball" in Māori) as a means of promoting increased flexibility, strength, and coordination -in particular, the dexterity of the wrist- and as an exercise of movements central to the use of hand weapons, including the patu, mere, and kotiate.


Some popular poi tricks include: reels, weaves, fountains, crossers, windmills, butterflies, stalls, and wraps. Split time and split direction moves are possible, and some of the more difficult moves require a considerable amount of manual dexterity, coordination and forearm strength to accomplish.


There are several basic classes of trick. The two poi are usually spun in parallel planes, and can be spun in the same direction (weaves) or opposite directions (butterflies). Moves such as stalls and wraps can change direction of one (or both poi) to change between these two classes.
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====Flying Kites==== 
Māori people were experts a building and flying kites. Kites were made from the flower stalks of toetoe grass (''Cortaderia fulvida'') and decorated with shells (such as the abalone), feathers, and foliage. Some kites were big enough to carry a person, and these were sometimes used to lift warriors over the walls of enemy defences.

====Puppetry==== 
The Māori made Karetao (puppets) to use in story-telling. The Karetao were carved figures featuring a handle at the bottom (and held by one hand) and movable arms attached to strings (operated by the other hand).

====Other Games==== 
Other games include
*Spinning Tops
*Wrestling
*Throwing Darts
*Memorization Games

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====String Figures====
String figures are designs made on the hands and fingers using a piece of string tied into a circle. In the west, an example of this would be the ''cat in the cradle''.


For instruction on making several Māori string figures, see
http://www.tki.org.nz/r/hpe/exploring_te_ao_kori/stringgames/index_e.php

====Stilts==== 
[[Image:WSJ2007 TerraVille Stilts.JPG|thumb|300px]]
Stilts are long poles with foot pegs mounted to them. The stilt-walker stands on the pegs, and the poles extend upwards past the shoulders. The walker wraps his arms around the poles and as he lifts his left foot, uses his left hand to lift the pole. The foot pegs are often movable, and it is best to learn to walk with stilts with the pegs set low to the ground. As the Pathfinder develops skill, the foot pegs can be raised.


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{{Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Problematic requirement
|This honor originated in the SPD, targeted a New Zealand Pathfinders who could visit a pa site with reasonable ease. When accepted by the GC is was not modified to reflect the goal of making all honors accessible to all Pathfinders.
|Visit an old pa site in your locality (if you live in New Zealand) or watch a documentary about an old pa site or the New Zealand Wars (if you live elsewhere) and make a brief written report on what you could see.
}}


The word '''pā''' (pronounced pah) refers to a Māori village, generally one from the 19th century or earlier that was fortified for defence. In Māori society, a great pā represented the mana of a tribal group, as personified by a chief or rangatira.


Nearly all pā were built in defensible locations to protect dwelling sites or gardens, almost always on prominent, raised ground which was then terraced; as for example in the Auckland region, where dormant volcanic cones were used. While built for defence, many were also primarily residential, and often quite extensive.


Māori pā played a significant role in the New Zealand Land Wars, though they are known from earlier periods of Māori history. They were mostly absent, however, until around 500 years ago, suggesting scarcity of resources through environmental damage and population pressure began to bring about warfare, leading to a period of pā building.

===Fortification=== 
[[Image:Mt Eden terraces.JPG|thumb|right|Terraces on Mt Eden, Auckland, marking the sites of the defensive palisades and ditches of this former pā.]]


Their main defence was the use of earth ramparts (or terraced hillsides), topped with stakes or wicker barriers. The historically later versions were constructed by people who were fighting with muskets and hand weapons (such as spear, taiaha and mere) against the British Army and armed constabulary, who were armed with swords, rifles, and heavy weapons such as howitzers and rocket artillery.


Pā were often put in place in very limited time scales, sometimes less than two days, and resisted attack for many hours and, sometimes, weeks. Military historians like John Keegan have noted that Māori recognition of the strong resistance of earth fortifications against modern weapons (especially artillery) predates the successful defensive use of trenches and sloped earth ramparts in World War I by many decades.


Warrior chiefs like Te Ruki Kawiti realised these properties as a good counter to the greater firepower of the British. With that in mind, they sometimes built pā purposefully to resist the British Empire's forces, like at Ruapekapeka, which was constructed specifically to draw the enemy, instead of protecting a specific site or place of habitation like more traditional pās. At the Battle of Ruapekapeka, the British suffered 45 casualties, against only 30 amongst the Māori. Afterwards, British engineers twice surveyed the fortifications, produced a scale model and tabled the plans in the House of Commons.


The fortifications of such a purpose-built pa included palisades of puriri trunks and split timber, with bundles of protective flax padding, the two lines of palisade covering a firing trench with individual pits, while more defenders could use the second palisade to fire over the heads of the first below. Simple communication trenches or tunnels were also built to connect the various parts, as found at Ohaeawai Pā or Ruapekapeka. The forts could even include underground bunkers, protected by a thick layer of earth over wooden beams, which sheltered the inhabitants during periods of heavy shelling by artillery.


A limiting factor of the Māori fortifications that were not built as set pieces, however, was the need for the people inhabiting them to leave frequently to cultivate areas for food, or to gather it from the wilderness. Consequently, pā would often be abandoned for 4 to 6 months of each year.

===Examples=== 
The old pā remains found on Maungakiekie/One Tree Hill, New Zealand, close to the center of Auckland, represent one of the largest known sites as well as one of the largest pre-historic earthworks fortifications known worldwide.


The word pā can refer to any Māori village or defensive settlement, but often refers to hill forts – fortified settlements with palisades and defensive terraces – and also to fortified villages. Pā are mainly in the North Island of New Zealand, north of Lake Taupo. Over 5000 sites have been located, photographed and examined although few have been subject to detailed analysis.


For more details, start with [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%81|this article].

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==References== 
* [http://history-nz.org/kite.html Māori Kites]
* [http://www.maori.org.nz/Tikanga/default.asp?pid=sp45&parent=42 Tangihanga procedures]
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=gemgFqF831QC&pg=PA72&lpg=PA72&dq=maori+mealtime+customs&source=bl&ots=iVvnj6Y5hM&sig=U_hTRfsLLKZvRT1K1v4lYC9DcKo&hl=en&ei=wkufSei3PN-BtwfVwMGODQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA38,M1 Maori Symbolism]
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=XXa3fXxLshMC&pg=PA98&lpg=PA98&dq=maori+sleeping+customs&source=bl&ots=ANX0VOoNy2&sig=wxOIIfeyEEVPrXmP3dEUFch8Yi8&hl=en&ei=g-2xSc22O4_ftgfY3cDEBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=7&ct=result#PPA99,M1 Tikanga Māori], by Sidney M. Mead, Hirini Moko Mead
* [http://spd.adventistconnect.org/education-history-statistics Adventist Connect - Education History]
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=y9l93XMRljwC&pg=PA305&lpg=PA305&dq=adventist+maori+story&source=bl&ots=r1mYKdoFss&sig=i1g8X9I2XK9vpdEZsQMEw1FYNlo&hl=en&ei=t9O5Sa3qBJGgM-XGjbII&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result#PPA107,M1 May the People Live], by Raeburn Lange.

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2021-09-20T20:37:05Z

BoisSar:

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[[Image:Marae, Raiatea 2.jpg|thumb|390px|Taputapuātea, an ancient marae at Ra'iātea in the Society Islands, restored in 1994.]]A '''marae''' is a sacred place which served both religious and social purposes in pre-Christian Polynesian societies and in some modern Polynesian societies, such as Māori, today. In all these languages, the word also means "cleared, free of weeds, trees, etc." It generally consists of an area of cleared land roughly rectangular (the marae itself), bordered with stones or wooden posts (called ''au'' in Tahitian and Cook Islands Māori) perhaps with terraces (''paepae'') which were used in olden times for ceremonial purposes; and with a central stone ''ahu'' or ''a'u'' (sometimes as in the Rapanui culture's ahu on Easter Island "ahu" becomes a synonym for the whole marae complex).

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A Pōwhiri is a Māori welcoming ceremony involving speeches, dancing, singing and hongi. It can be performed both to welcome guests onto a marae or during other ceremonies, such as during a dedication of a building (where the performers might welcome the owners or future users of the building). A pōwhiri is not performed for every group of manuhiri (visitors). It is often reserved for special visitors or for tupapaku (the arrival of the body of the deceased) for a tangihanga (funeral). However, powhiri are also often performed for tourist groups as part of special events.
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'''Karakia''' is the Māori word for incantations and prayers. Karakia are generally used to ensure a favourable outcome of important untertakings. They are also considered a formal greeting when beginning a ceremony. According to legend, in the village of Ruatoria, there was a curse on the Waiapu River which was lifted when Hori Keeti performed Karakia.

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''Mate'' means "death" in Māori. "Ka Mate" is a Māori ''haka'' composed by Te Rauparaha, war leader of the Ngāti Toa tribe of the North Island of New Zealand:
the main body of the haka:


{| class="wikitable"
|--
|Ka mate, ka mate! ka ora! ka ora!
Ka mate! ka mate! ka ora! ka ora!


Tēnei te tangata pūhuruhuru


Nāna nei i tiki mai whakawhiti te rā


Ā, upane! ka upane!


Ā, upane, ka upane, whiti te ra!
|’Tis death! ‘tis death! ''(or: I may die)'' ’Tis life! ‘tis life! ''(or: I may live)''
’Tis death! ‘tis death! ’Tis life! ‘tis life!


This the hairy man that stands here...


…who brought the sun and caused it to shine


A step upward, another step upward!


A step upward, another... the Sun shines!
|}

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Waiata is the Māori word for song.

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Kōrero is the spoken word. Māori is a culture based on Kōrero, the oral tradition. Māori place as much importance on the spoken word as Western cultures place on the written word. In the Western world, people are bound by written contracts and laws are written down before they may come into effect. In Māori, Kōrero is binding.


[http://www.maori.org.nz/Tikanga/default.asp?pid=sp100&parent=95 www.maori.org.nz].

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[[Image:MaoriWardanceKahuroa.jpg|thumb|260px|The haka is a traditional genre of Māori dance. This depiction of a haka as a war dance dates from ca. 1845.]]
A haka is a traditional dance form. It is a posture dance with shouted accompaniment, performed by a group. Although the use of a haka by the ''All Blacks'' (a rugby team) has made one type of haka familiar, it has led to misconceptions. Haka are not exclusively war dances, nor are they only performed by men. Some are performed by women, others by mixed groups, and some simple haka are performed by children. Haka are performed for various reasons: for amusement, as a hearty welcome to distinguished guests, or to acknowledge great achievements or occasions. War haka, which had their own term, 'peruperu', were originally performed by warriors before a battle, proclaiming their strength and prowess in order to intimidate the opposition. Today, haka constitute an integral part of formal or official welcome ceremonies for distinguished visitors or foreign dignitaries, serving to impart a sense of the importance of the occasion.

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''Kuia'' (also ''kui'') is the Māori word for "grandmother".

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In the Māori language, ''Tāne'' means "man".

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In the Māori language, ''Wero'' means "challenge". At the beginning of a Powhiri, the people must first determine if the visitors have peaceful intentions or not. This is done through the wero which literally means "to cast a spear." The warriors performing the wero will make frightening gestures with spears. Once the challenge is complete, the warriors will guide the visitors to the marae where they will be welcomed by the women and children.

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In Polynesian culture (for example, Hawaiian and Māori), mana is a spiritual quality considered to have supernatural origin – a sacred impersonal force existing in the universe. Therefore to have ''mana'' is to have influence and authority, and efficacy – the power to perform in a given situation. This essential quality of ''mana'' is not limited to persons – peoples, governments, places and inanimate objects can possess ''mana''. In Hawaiian, ''mana loa'' means "great power". People or objects that possess ''mana'' are accorded "respect"; because their possession of ''mana'' gives them "authority", "power", and "prestige". In Māori, a tribe that has ''mana whenua'' is considered to have demonstrated their authority over a given piece of land or territory. The word’s meaning is complex because ''mana'' is a basic foundation of the Polynesian worldview.


The magazine ''Māori Law Review'' suggests two essential aspects to a Māori person's ''mana'':


* ''mana tangata'', authority derived from ''whakapapa'' connections, and
* ''mana huaanga'', defined as "authority derived from having a wealth of resources to gift to others to bind them into reciprocal obligations".

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Manuhiri are visitors. Locals and visitors have to respect certain rules, especially during the rituals of encounter. This is when the phrase tāngata whenua (people of the land) comes into play. Should a group of people come to stay on a marae, they are considered manuhiri (guests) while the owners of the marae are known as tāngata whenua. Should other groups of manuhiri arrive, the manuhiri who arrived previously - regardless of their race - are considered tāngata whenua for the purposes of formally welcoming the new group. When Māori refer to themselves as tāngata whenua this is not done solely to emphasise their indigenous status, as is often assumed, because the connotation in Māori of the phrase is one not of separation but rather of welcome and inclusion.

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A '''Hongi''' is a traditional Māori greeting in New Zealand. It is done by pressing one's nose to another person at an encounter. See below.

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A hui is a New Zealand Māori social gathering or assembly in a Māori community.

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Poroporoaki is the final farewell during a ''powhiri''. When the poroporoaki is concluded, the ''mana'' returns to the host. It is a solemn occasion during which the people reflect on the welcome they have received, and recognize that they may not experience another ''powhiri'' before their death.

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Whānau is a Māori-language word for extended family. Other meanings, though less commonly used in English, are to give birth, or genus.

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Tangi is a Māori funeral rite.

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''Aroha'' can be best translated as "love," but the meaning is deeper than that. The Māori believe that ''Aroha'' is the force that binds the universe together.

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Whakairo is a Māori form of carving. Carvings are made from wood, jade, bone, or basalt.

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''Koro'' is a Māori chief.

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Kaumatua are respected tribal elders of either gender in a Māori community who have been involved with their whānau for a number of years. They are appointed by their people who believe the chosen elders have the capacity to teach and guide both current and future generations.

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''Wahine'' is the Māori word for "woman".

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A Māori word literally meaning "homage" or "respect".

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Whaikorero means "formal speech" or "oration".

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Tangata whenua is a Māori term literally meaning "people of the land", from tangata, 'people' and whenua land. In the context of tribal descent and ownership of land, tangata whenua are the people who descend from the first people to settle the land of the district, whereas the actual mana may reside with later arrivals. However, in the context of a marae, the tangata whenua are the owners of the marae, in contradistinction to the manuhiri or guests. After the welcoming ceremony on a marae, the guests may be afforded the temporary, honorary status of tangata whenua, and may even be invited to participate as locals as the ceremonies continue. In the national context of New Zealand, Māori are the tangata whenua, and in this sense the term is equivalent to 'indigenous'.

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A taonga in Māori culture is a treasured thing, whether tangible or intangible. Tangible examples are all sorts of heirlooms and artefacts, land and fisheries. Intangible examples may include language, spiritual beliefs, radio frequencies and riparian rights.

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[[File:Polynesian Migration.svg|thumb|600px|center|<center>Polynesian migration routes</center>]]

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Various Māori traditions recount how their ancestors set out from a mythical homeland in great ocean-going canoes (or waka). Some of these traditions name the homeland as Hawaiki.

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Various Māori traditions recount how their ancestors set out from a mythical homeland in great ocean-going canoes (or waka). Some of these traditions name the homeland as Hawaiki.


Among these is the story of Kupe, who had eloped with Kuramarotini, the wife of Hoturapa, the owner of the great canoe Matahourua, whom Kupe had murdered. To escape punishment for the murder, Kupe and Kura fled in Matahourua and discovered a land he called Aotearoa ('long-white-cloud'). He explored its coast and killed the sea monster Te Wheke-a-Muturangi, finally returning to his home to spread news of his newly discovered land.


Other stories of various other tribes report migrations to escape famine, over-population, and warfare. These were made in legendary canoes, the best known of which are Aotea, Arawa, Kurahaupō, Mataatua, Tainui, Tākitimu, and Tokomaru. Various traditions name numerous other canoes. Some, including the Āraiteuru, are well known; others including the Kirauta and the sacred Arahura and Mahangaatuamatua are little known. Rather than arriving in a single fleet, the journeys may have occurred over several centuries.


An important early collector and preserver of Māori traditions was the surveyor and ethnologist Stephenson Percy Smith. He believed that while the Polynesian traditions may have been flawed in detail, they preserved the threads of truth which could be recovered using a method already well established for Hawaiian traditions by Fornander (1878-1885). This method involved seeking out common elements of tradition from different sources, and aligning these to genealogies to give a time frame for the events. Abraham Fornander, Smith, and others used this method to reconstruct the migrations of the Polynesians, tracing them back to a supposed ancient homeland in India.


S. Percy Smith used the Fornander method, combining disparate traditions from various parts of New Zealand and other parts of Polynesia, to derive a now discredited version of Māori migration to New Zealand -- the 'Great Fleet' hypothesis. Through an examination of the genealogies of various tribes, he came up with a set of precise dates for his 'Great Fleet' and the explorers that he and others posited as having paved the way for the fleet.


According to Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand, "Smith’s account went as follows. In 750 AD the Polynesian explorer Kupe discovered an uninhabited New Zealand. Then in 1000–1100 AD, the Polynesian explorers Toi and Whātonga visited New Zealand, and found it inhabited by a primitive, nomadic people known as the Moriori. Finally, in 1350 AD a ‘great fleet’ of seven canoes – Aotea, Kurahaupō, Mataatua, Tainui, Tokomaru, Te Arawa and Tākitimu – all departed from the Tahitian region at the same time, bringing the people now known as Māori to New Zealand. These were advanced, warlike, agricultural tribes who destroyed the Moriori." The great fleet scenario won general acceptance, its adherents even including the famous Māori ethnologist Te Rangi Hīroa (Sir Peter Buck), and was taught in New Zealand schools. However it was effectively demolished during the 1960s by the ethnologist David Simmons, who showed that it derived from an incomplete and indiscriminate study of Māori tradition as recorded in the 19th Century. Simmons also suggests that some of these 'migrations' may actually have been journeys within New Zealand.


Historian Rāwiri Taonui, writing in 2006 for the website Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, accuses Smith of falsification: "The Great Fleet theory was the result of a collaboration between the 19th-century ethnologist S. Percy Smith and the Māori scholar Hoani Te Whatahoro Jury. Smith obtained details about places in Rarotonga and Tahiti during a visit in 1897, while Jury provided information about Māori canoes in New Zealand. Smith then ‘cut and pasted’ his material, combining several oral traditions into new ones. Their joint work was published in two books, in which Jury and Smith falsely attributed much of their information to two 19th-century tohunga, Moihi Te Mātorohanga and Nēpia Pōhūhū" (Taonui 2006).

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{{Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Problematic requirement
|"Make in the canoe" is obviously a grammatical gaffe.It was most probably supposed to say to "mark".
|Draw or trace a map of New Zealand showing all the major tribal areas, and the name of the canoe for each.
}}


[[Image:IwiMap.png|Tribal areas of New Zealand]]


These are the seven legendary canoes proposed by historian Stephenson Percy Smith in his "Great Fleet hypothesis." Various traditions name numerous other canoes.


{| class="wikitable"
! '''Name of Canoe'''
! '''Regional Traditions'''
! '''Associated Iwi or Hapu'''
|-
| Aotea || Taranaki, Waikato || Ngā Rauru Kītahi, Ngāti Ruanui
|-
| Te Arawa || Bay of Plenty, East Coast, Waikato || Ngāti Tūwharetoa, Te Arawa
|-
| Kurahaupō || Northland, Taranaki || Ngati Apa, Ngāti Kurī, Ngati Ruanui
|-
| Mataatua || Bay of Plenty, Northland || Ngā Puhi, Ngāi Te Rangi, Ngāti Awa, Ngāti Pūkenga, Te Whakatōhea
|-
| Tainui || Auckland, Bay of Plenty, Taranaki, Waikato || Ngāti Raukawa Ngāti Maniapoto, Ngāti Maru, Ngāti Pāoa, Ngāti Rongoū, Ngāti Tamaterā, Ngāti Whanaunga
|-
| Tākitimu || Bay of Plenty, East Coast, South Island || Muriwhenua, Ngāti Kahungunu, Ngāti Ranginui, Ngāi Tahu
|-
| Tokomaru || Taranaki || Ngati Tama, Ngati Mutunga, Ngati Rāhiri, Manukorihi, Puketapu, Te Atiawa, Ngati Maru
|-
|}

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[[Image:Rangitoto island from north head.jpg|thumb|600px|left|Rangitoto Island as viewed from North Head.]]
Rangitoto Island is a volcanic island in the Hauraki Gulf near Auckland, New Zealand. Rangitoto is Māori for 'Bloody Sky', with the name coming from the full phrase Nga Rangi-i-totongia-a Tama-te-kapua ('The days of the bleeding of Tama-te-kapua').
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{{Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Problematic requirement
|This honor originated in the SPD, targeted a New Zealand Pathfinders who could visit a marae event with reasonable ease. When accepted by the GC is was not modified to reflect the goal of making all honors accessible to all Pathfinders.
|Suggested alternative requirement: Research a marae and write a report detailing their history and structure.
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A hui can be called for many reasons, including a wedding, birth, funeral, or even a meeting to discuss community decisions.


If you arrive at the marae before the rest of your group, wait for them before entering. Visitors are always welcomed in groups, and to enter all by yourself is a violation of protocol. When your whole group has arrived, you may enter the marae, and you will be welcomed in a powhiri ceremony.


It might be a good idea to bring a small notebook and pen along so you can take notes about what is happening. A hui follows a prescribed structure. If you do not understand everything that happens, ask your host afterwards.

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As described previously, ''mate'' means "death" in Māori.


Tangihanga, or more commonly, Tangi, is a Māori funeral rite. Tangihanga takes place at a marae, and each manuhiri (visiting group) receives a pohiri (formal greeting). Some tribes will not perform a pohiri after dark, so the visitors must arrive before dusk.


A collection is taken up to defray the costs of embalming, to defray the costs of the marae, or both.


On the final night of the tangihanga, people tell stories, sing, and tell jokes to help cheer the grieving family. Burial takes place the following day. After the body is lowered into the grave, people are given an opportunity to say a final farewell. Then everyone present files by the grave and throws in either a flower or a handful of soil.


If the deceased lived near the cemetery, the people go their after the burial and bless the house. Otherwise, this is done sometime later. After the house blessing, a Hakari (final feast) is held, during which people will speak or perform. The Hakari is a celebration and affirmation of life.

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Food was considered communal property among the Māori. It was distributed by an official who was placed in charge of the food warehouse. Communal ownership of food prevented an unlucky fisherman (and his family) from going hungry.


Before contact with Europeans was established, the Māori diet consisted primarily of vegetables, though fish was not an uncommon food. They correctly believed that diet affected health, and that regular bowels were an important aspect of general health.


The Māori ate two meals per day. Breakfast was eaten a few hours after waking, and dinner was eaten in the early evening. A light snack sufficed for lunch.

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The history of individual tribal groups is kept by means of narratives, songs and chants, hence the importance of music, story and poetry. Oratory, the making of speeches, is especially important in the rituals of encounter, and it is regarded as important for a speaker to include allusions to traditional narrative and to a complex system of proverbial sayings, called whakataukī.


Formal speeches are delivered at marae, and as the orator speaks, he re-enacts portions of the Māori creation story when Tāne separated the earth (his mother) from the sky (his father), thus allowing himself and his siblings to see light. During the oration, this re-enactment represents light (or understanding) coming to the people.

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In some cases, guests to a marae may spend the night. When this happens, the hosts provide mattresses on the floor, but no beds. Everyone sleeps in a common room, and the guests are not separated by gender.


It is considered ''very'' bad manners to step over the body of a sleeping person. Stepping over a person's head is absolutely forbidden, as a person's head is considered the most ''tapu'' (sacred) part of a person.


The Māori also observe customs to determine where guests and hosts sleep. The guests sleep in the tapu part of the house, which is located along the right wall as one enters the building. Hosts sleep on the ''noa'' (common) side which is on the left. Further, the chief among the visitors will sleep in the corner near a window, and visitors are ordered in a way which is related to the order in which they speak.

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Of the Māori who claim a religion, 98% today identify themselves as Christian. The largest denominations in the 2006 census were Anglicans (about 14% of the population), Catholics (about 12%), Presbyterians (about 9%), and Methodists (about 3%). Around 5% of the population identified themselves as Christian without associating themselves with any particular denomination.


For the purposes of this requirement though, we will not consider these as "Māori" religions, as they were introduced by the Europeans. "The" two Māori religions in use today could arguably be the original Māori religion practiced before the Europeans arrived, and Ratana.

====Māori Religion==== 
Traditional Māori religion, that is, the pre-European belief system of the Māori, was little modified from that of their tropical Eastern Polynesian homeland (Hawaiki Nui), conceiving of everything, including natural elements and all living things as connected by common descent through whakapapa or genealogy. Accordingly, all things were thought of as possessing a life force or mauri. As an illustration of this concept of connectedness through genealogy, consider a few of the major personifications of pre-contact times: Tangaroa was the personification of the ocean and the ancestor or origin of all fish; Tāne was the personification of the forest and the origin of all birds; and Rongo was the personification of peaceful activities and agriculture and the ancestor of cultivation.


Certain practices are followed that relate to traditional concepts like tapu. Certain people and objects contain mana - spiritual power or essence. In earlier times, tribal members of a higher rank would not touch objects which belonged to members of a lower rank. This was considered "pollution" and persons of a lower rank could not touch the belongings of a highborn person without putting themselves at risk of death.


Tapu can be interpreted as "sacred", as "spiritual restriction" or "implied prohibition"; it involves rules and prohibitions. There are two kinds of tapu, the private (relating to individuals) and the public tapu (relating to communities). A person, an object or a place, which is tapu, may not be touched by human contact, in some cases, not even approached. A person, object or a place could be made sacred by tapu for a certain time.


In pre-contact society, tapu was one of the strongest forces in Māori life. A violation of tapu could have dire consequences, including the death of the offender through sickness or at the hands of someone affected by the offence. In earlier times food cooked for a person of high rank was tapu, and could not be eaten by an inferior. A chief's house was tapu, and even the chief could not eat food in the interior of his house. Not only were the houses of people of high rank perceived to be tapu, but also their possessions including their clothing. Burial grounds and places of death were always tapu, and these areas were often surrounded by a protective fence.

====Ratana==== 
The Ratana movement is a Māori religion and pan-tribal political movement founded by Tahupotiki Wiremu Ratana in early 20th century New Zealand. The Ratana Church has its headquarters at the settlement of Ratana, near Wanganui.


The first decades of the twentieth century were a low point for Māori, both in numbers and in spirit. During the nineteenth century, Māori lost their tribal way of life, lands, traditional religion and their mana. Christianity had been accepted, but the missionaries had acted as chaplains to the colonial forces fighting against their Christian converts who were defending their land. Many Māori regarded the missionary clergy as agents of the Government in a deep-laid plot to subjugate the Māori people.


From the 1860s, prophets such as Te Ua Haumene, Te Kooti, Te Whiti o Rongomai and Tohu Kakahi put the words of the Bible into terms Māori could understand. The dislocation of colonialism had strained Māori society and led to a belief in a saviour to come.


In 1918, Tahupotiki Wiremu Ratana saw a vision, which he regarded as divinely inspired, asking him to preach the gospel to the Māori people, to destroy the power of the tohunga and to cure the spirits and bodies of his people. Until 1924, he preached to increasingly large numbers of Māori, and T.W. Ratana established a name for himself as the "Māori Miracle Man". Initially, the movement was seen as a Christian revival but it soon moved away from mainstream churches. On 31 May 1925, Te Haahi Ratana (The Ratana Church) was formally established as a separate church, with its founder acknowledged as Te Mangai or the mouthpiece of God. Hostile attitudes have caused the church to be guarded towards its teaching and founder.

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[[Image:WahineTane.jpg|right|260px|thumb|right|Papa and Rangi held each other in a tight embrace]] In Māori mythology the primal couple Rangi and Papa (or Ranginui and Papatuanuku) appear in a creation myth explaining the origin of the world.


Rangi and Papa are the primordial parents, the sky father and the earth mother who lie locked together in a tight embrace. They have many children all of which are male, who are forced to live in the cramped darkness between them. These children grow and discuss among themselves what it would be like to live in the light. Tūmatauenga, the fiercest of the children, proposes that the best solution to their predicament is to kill their parents.


But his brother Tāne (or Tāne-mahuta) disagrees, suggesting that it is better to push them apart, to let Rangi (their father) be as a stranger to them in the sky above while Papa (their mother) will remain below to nurture them. The others put their plans into action—Rongo, the god of cultivated food, tries to push his parents apart, then Tangaroa, the god of the sea, and his sibling Haumia-tiketike, the god of wild food, join him. In spite of their joint efforts Rangi and Papa remain close together in their loving embrace. After many attempts Tāne, god of forests and birds, forces his parents apart. Instead of standing upright and pushing with his hands as his brothers have done, he lies on his back and pushes with his strong legs. Stretching every sinew Tāne pushes and pushes until, with cries of grief and surprise, Ranginui and Papatuanuku are forced apart.


And so the children of Rangi and Papa see light and have space to move for the first time. While the other children have agreed to the separation Tāwhirimātea, the god of storms and winds, is angered that the parents have been torn apart. He cannot not bear to hear the cries of his parents nor see the tears of the Rangi as they are parted, he promises his siblings that from henceforth they will have to deal with his anger. He flies off to join Rangi and there carefully fosters his own many offspring who include the winds, one of whom is sent to each quarter of the compass. To fight his brothers, Tāwhirimātea gathers an army of his children—winds and clouds of different kinds, including fierce squalls, whirlwinds, gloomy thick clouds, fiery clouds, hurricane clouds and thunderstorm clouds, and rain, mists and fog. As these winds show their might the dust flies and the great forest trees of Tāne are smashed under the attack and fall to the ground, food for decay and for insects.


Then Tāwhirimātea attacks the oceans and huge waves rise, whirlpools form, and Tangaroa, the god of the sea, flees in panic. Punga, a son of Tangaroa, has two children, Ikatere father of fish, and Tu-te-wehiwehi (or Tu-te-wanawana) the ancestor of reptiles. Terrified by Tāwhirimātea’s onslaught the fish seek shelter in the sea and the reptiles in the forests. Ever since Tangaroa has been angry with Tāne for giving refuge to his runaway children. So it is that Tāne supplies the descendants of Tūmatauenga with canoes, fishhooks and nets to catch the descendants of Tangaroa. Tangaroa retaliates by swamping canoes and sweeping away houses, land and trees that are washed out to sea in floods.


Tāwhirimātea next attacks his brothers Rongo and Haumia-tiketike, the gods of cultivated and uncultivated foods. Rongo and Haumia are in great fear of Tāwhirimātea but, as he attacks them, Papa determines to keep these for her other children and hides them so well that Tāwhirimātea cannot find them. So Tāwhirimātea turns on his brother Tūmatauenga. He uses all his strength but Tūmatauenga stands fast and Tāwhirimatea cannot prevail against him. Tū (or humankind) stands fast and, at last, the anger of the gods subsided and peace prevailed.


Tū thought about the actions of Tāne in separating their parents and made snares to catch the birds, the children of Tāne who could no longer fly free. He then makes nets from forest plants and casts them in the sea so that the children of Tangaroa soon lie in heaps on the shore. He made hoes to dig the ground, capturing his brothers Rongo and Haumia-tiketike where they have hidden from Tāwhirimātea in the bosom of the earth mother and, recognising them by their long hair that remains above the surface of the earth, he drags them forth and heaps them into baskets to be eaten. So Tūmatauenga eats all of his brothers to repay them for their cowardice; the only brother that Tūmatauenga does not subdue is Tāwhirimātea, whose storms and hurricanes attack humankind to this day.

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;before 1893: Maui Pomare, a Māori youth is baptized as a Seventh-day Adventist in Napier.
;1893: Pomare travels to the U.S. to study medicine at the Seventh-day Adventist Church medical college at Battle Creek, Michigan.
;1895: Pomare publishes a pamphlet in the Māori language arguing that the seventh day is the Sabbath.
;1900: Pomare returns to New Zealand and was selected to serve as Māori Health Officer in the Department of Health. In this role he undertook a number of major campaigns to improve Māori health and met with considerable success. He eventually leaves the Adventist Church.
;1902: First Adventist school opens in New Zealand at Ponsonby
;1903: Adventist school opened in Christschurch. Both schools fail due to lack of resources.
;1903-1905: Adventist schools opened in Napier, Lower Hutt, Petone and New Plymouth.
;1908: School opened near Cambridge and named "Pukekura", Māori for "I love the place."
;1913: Pukekura relocated to its current site at Longburn Adventist College near Palmerston North.
;next 100 years?

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In the book ''Tikanga Māori'' Hirini Moko Mead describes the Māori attitude to religion this way:
{|border=1 cellspacing=1 cellpadding=5 align=center
|-
|style="background:#ffffc0"|
:''The concept of tapu is an important element in all tikange. The source of''
:''tapu goes to the heart of Māori religious thought and even though a majority''
:''of Māori are members of some Christian church or sect the notion of tapu''
:''holds. It is not really a matter of choosing one religion over another.''
:''Rather it has to do with integrating different philosophies and making an ''
:''attempt at reconciling apparent contradictions.''
<p>
:::'''— Hirini Moko Mead'''
|}

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===Tukutuku===
A tukutuku is a woven wall hanging traditionally made from flax. New Zealand flax describes common New Zealand perennial plants ''Phormium tenax'' and ''Phormium cookianum'', known by the Māori names harakeke and wharariki respectively. They are quite distinct from ''Linum usitatissimum'', the Northern Hemisphere plant known as flax (and also known as linseed). The genus was given the common name 'flax' by Anglophone Europeans as it too could be used for its fibres.



{{TODO|Add instruction for making a tukutuku panel|Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book}}


Tukutuku panels are a traditional Māori art form. They are decorative wall panels that were once part of the traditional wall construction used inside meeting houses. Originally tukutuku were made by creating a latticework of vertically and horizontally placed dried stalks of kākaho, the creamy-gold flower stalks of toetoe grass, and kākaka, long straight fern stalks, or wooden laths of rimu or tōtara, called variously kaho tara, kaho tarai or arapaki.


These panels were lashed or stitched together. This was done by people working in pairs from either side, using the rich yellow strands of pīngao, white bleached or black-dyed kiekie, and sometimes harakeke, to create a range of intricate and artistic patterns. Stitches were combined to form a variety of patterns. Groups of single stitches created patterns such as tapuae kautuku, waewae pakura, whakarua kopito and papakirango. Some of the traditional cross stitched patterns are poutama, waharua, purapura whetu or mangaroa, kaokao, pātikitiki, roimata toroa and niho taniwha. In some situations, a central vertical stake, tumatahuki, was lashed to the panel to aid its strength and stability.


This method of construction created a warm, insulating type of decorative wallboard. Later, painted wooden slats or half-rounds were used for the horizontal element. Today, however, such dry flammable wallboards would fail to meet modern building regulations, and they are no longer used in construction. When used nowadays, tukutuku panels are created for their aesthetic appeal and attached to structurally approved building materials.

===Tipare=== 
A tipare is a headband woven from flax. You can make one from paper if you do not have access to flax, or you could use any broad-leaved grass. These instructions are adapted from those written by Catherine Brown in [http://teaohou.natlib.govt.nz/journals/teaohou/issue/Mao52TeA/c11.html an article written in 1965]. If using flax, run the length of the flax over the blade of a knife to soften it up. To make a tipare from paper, start by cutting it into strips 1 cm wide. You might want to practice on paper before trying this in flax, but that's up to you. The tipare illustrated below was made in paper (with the edges marked) to make it easier to understand the photos.


{|border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=1
|-
|[[Image:Tipare_621.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] Mark a 60° angle on one strip, not in the center, but off to either side. Fold the strip into a V along the 60° line with the left side over the right. This angle is critical, so make it as close to 60° as you can. Place a second strip in the bottom of the V as shown, but do not center it in the notch of the V. If you make the V fold in the center or center the second strip on the notch, the two ends of the strip will run out at the same time and you will have two splices in the same vicinity. Offsetting them from the center avoids this problem.
|}
{|border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=1
|-
|[[Image:Tipare_622.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] Fold the right side of the horizontal strip behind the right leg of the V so that it lies parallel to the left leg of the V. If the 60° angle was folded properly, the second strip should fall right into place. If it does not, check the angle of that first fold again.
|}
{|border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=1
|-
|
[[Image:Tipare_623.jpg|thumb|300px|left]][[Image:Tipare_624.jpg|thumb|300px|right]]
Fold the other horizontal strip over the left leg of the V so that it runs along and parallel to the right leg of the V. Tuck it beneath the second strip it crosses. You should end up with a double-V, consisting of two outer legs and two inner. The rest of the weaving process will always begin with one of the outer legs. Choosing which is perhaps the most difficult part of making a tipare, but for now, choose the one on the right and fold it behind the V as shown on the right. Make sure that it goes behind two strips and over the third.
|}
{|border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=1
|-
|
[[Image:Tipare_625.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] Now take that same strip and fold it around the back of the strip it was just tucked in front of. Weave it in front of the adjacent strip.
|}
{|border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=1
|-
|
[[Image:Tipare_626.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] Fold the strip farthest to the left behind the tipare, and weave it in front of the strip farthest to the right.
|}
{|border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=1
|-
|
[[Image:Tipare_627.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] Fold that same strip behind the right-most strip and weave it in front of the next. The next step is to take one of the outer strips and fold it into a horizontal position, but which strip? As you make a tipare, this will be the question that vexes you after every fold, and if you get it wrong, the tipare will come out wrong as well. Look at the photo to the left. If you fold the strip on the left, you will continue the edge made along the left side. If you fold the strip on the right, you will form a point on the right side. Always choose the strip that will form a point.
|}
{|border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=1
|-
|
[[Image:Tipare_628.jpg|thumb|300px|left]][[Image:Tipare_629.jpg|thumb|300px|right]] There — we have chosen the strip that will form a point and have folded it horizontally. It was woven over the front of the outer strip on the other side and then folded around it and woven again.
|}
{|border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=1
|-
|
[[Image:Tipare_631.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] But now we've run out of strip. Cut the strip along the edge of the tipare, and cut the tip of a new strip off at the same angle. The ends of these two strips are positioned next to the pieces from which they were cut. Discard them.
|}
{|border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=1
|-
|
[[Image:Tipare_632.jpg|thumb|300px|left]] Now tuck the new strip into the weave, pushing it in until it stops. You should be able to push it in pretty far. There is no need for glue or any other sort of adhesive. The weave itself will hold the strip in place. Continue weaving until you have a long enough piece of tipare to wrap around the head of the intended tipare wearer.
|}
{|border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=1
|-
|
[[Image:Tipare_633.jpg|thumb|300px|left]][[Image:Tipare_634.jpg|thumb|300px|right]]Bend the tipare around forming a loop. Line up the beginning of the tipare with the points on the unwoven end (photo on the left). Fold the next strip on the unwoven end around the beginning, cut it to length, and tuck it into the weave (photo on the right).
|}
{|border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=1
|-
|
[[Image:Tipare_636.jpg|thumb|300px|left]][[Image:Tipare_641.jpg|thumb|300px|right]] Continue weaving the loose ends into the tipare, cutting them off at the proper length and tucking them into the weave. When the last strip is woven into place, the tipare is finished. Crown the recipient.
|}

===Mats and Baskets=== 
{{TODO|Add instruction for making a mat or basket|Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book}}
[[Image:flax basket & lid.jpg|thumb|left|Flax basket & lid]]
[[Image:Flax flower.jpg|thumb|right|Woven flax flower]]

====Preparations==== 


;Harvesting:
Flax should be cut in a certain way. Traditional weavers were conservationists — they looked after the flax plant from its growth, after harvesting, and through the whole process of usage. Māori treasure the flax plant, presumably because it was a major resource for them for many things. Never cut the center (baby blade), nor the two on either side - (mother and father). Cutting these blades will kill the plant. Return all unused flax (harekeke) and wastage to the plant cut up as mulch. Don't harvest in the rain or the flax will shrink too much after use When cutting the flax make sure you cut on an angle. This is to make sure that rain and debris does not settle in the roots and spoil the plant. Keep the flax usable for a few days by placing ends in a bucket of water as soon as you return home. Keep it out of the direct sun. To keep it longer boil it as described in the ''Dying Flax'' section below.


;Tools:
A steel bar or using the back or blunt side of a butter knife is used to soften the strips. Traditionally a mussel shell was used. The shell or blunt edge is pulled along the dull side of the flax blade and this also helps release the moisture content. Flax woven articles do shrink to a beautiful golden colour as they dry. Flax is used green or is softened by boiling as described below. Using boiled flax reduces the shrinkage in the finished article.


;Dying Flax:
Bring a pot of water to a boil, and add your flax, prepared as above in the ''Tools'' section. Boil the flax for 5 minutes and then dry it. This can be kept for later use or dyed whenever you are ready. Fill a sink or bucket with warm water and put the boiled, dry flax in the water to soften it. You can now weave with it or dye it. Use a large pot and fill two thirds with water and then add the dye to the boiling water. The amount used is up to the weaver. Return it to a boil. Finally, place your softened flax into the dye - use rubber gloves. Once the right colour is obtained, add a good handful of salt. This will set the dye or ''fix'' it to the flax fibres. Allow the dyed flax to dry, but not in the direct sun. Once it is dry you can then go through the process to soften it and weave it. If you use it straight after dying you will need to wear disposable gloves unless you want your hands to be dyed as well. But once it has dryed it will set the dye. Some people use vinegar to fix the dye. For the dye itself you can use cordial drink concentrates (Thriftee and Koolaid are brands available in New Zealand and they don't need a fixer as the citric acid in the drink concentrate and set the dye). You can mix these colours to get the one you want.

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In the Māori language, speakers distinguish correct use of the number of people referred to in all aspects of the language. For example, everyday greetings take different forms depending on the number of people greeted:


* Tēnā koe: hello (to one person)
* Tēnā kōrua: hello (to two people)
* Tēnā koutou: hello (to more than two people

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[[Image:Powhiri, USAF.jpg|thumb|right|A U.S. airman and a Māori warrior exchange a Hongi during a Pōwhiri ceremony]]
A '''Hongi''' is a traditional Māori greeting in New Zealand. It is done by pressing one's nose to another person at an encounter.


It is still used at traditional meetings among members of the Māori people and on major ceremonies.


In the hongi, the ha or breath of life is exchanged and intermingled.


Through the exchange of this physical greeting, you are no longer considered manuhiri (visitor) but rather tangata whenua, one of the people of the land. For the remainder of your stay you are obliged to share in all the duties and responsibilities of the home people. In earlier times, this may have meant bearing arms in times of war, or tending crops of kumara (sweet potato).


When Māori greet one another by pressing noses, the tradition of sharing the breath of life is considered to have come directly from the gods.


In Māori folklore, woman was created by the god Tane moulding her shape out of the earth. Then Tane (meaning male) embraced the figure and breathed into her nostrils. She then sneezed and came to life. Her name was Hineahuone (earth formed woman). Tane later had a child with her and when she found out he was her father she fled to the underworld where she was believed to look after the spirits of the dead.

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====Māori Stick Game==== 
In the Māori stick game, the participants sit in a circle and each person holds two sticks Music begins, and the sticks are then rhythmically rapped on the floor or tapped together in beat with the music. See http://www.uen.org/Lessonplan/preview.cgi?LPid=13919 for more details.

====Poi==== 
[[File:Feuerpois02.JPG|thumb|200px|Fire poi in action (long exposure)]]
Poi is a form of juggling or object manipulation employing a ball suspended from a length of rope which is held in hand and swung in circular patterns, comparable to club-twirling. Poi spinning originated with the Māori people of New Zealand (the word poi means "ball" in Māori) as a means of promoting increased flexibility, strength, and coordination -in particular, the dexterity of the wrist- and as an exercise of movements central to the use of hand weapons, including the patu, mere, and kotiate.


Some popular poi tricks include: reels, weaves, fountains, crossers, windmills, butterflies, stalls, and wraps. Split time and split direction moves are possible, and some of the more difficult moves require a considerable amount of manual dexterity, coordination and forearm strength to accomplish.


There are several basic classes of trick. The two poi are usually spun in parallel planes, and can be spun in the same direction (weaves) or opposite directions (butterflies). Moves such as stalls and wraps can change direction of one (or both poi) to change between these two classes.
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====Flying Kites==== 
Māori people were experts a building and flying kites. Kites were made from the flower stalks of toetoe grass (''Cortaderia fulvida'') and decorated with shells (such as the abalone), feathers, and foliage. Some kites were big enough to carry a person, and these were sometimes used to lift warriors over the walls of enemy defences.

====Puppetry==== 
The Māori made Karetao (puppets) to use in story-telling. The Karetao were carved figures featuring a handle at the bottom (and held by one hand) and movable arms attached to strings (operated by the other hand).

====Other Games==== 
Other games include
*Spinning Tops
*Wrestling
*Throwing Darts
*Memorization Games

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====String Figures====
String figures are designs made on the hands and fingers using a piece of string tied into a circle. In the west, an example of this would be the ''cat in the cradle''.


For instruction on making several Māori string figures, see
http://www.tki.org.nz/r/hpe/exploring_te_ao_kori/stringgames/index_e.php

====Stilts==== 
[[Image:WSJ2007 TerraVille Stilts.JPG|thumb|300px]]
Stilts are long poles with foot pegs mounted to them. The stilt-walker stands on the pegs, and the poles extend upwards past the shoulders. The walker wraps his arms around the poles and as he lifts his left foot, uses his left hand to lift the pole. The foot pegs are often movable, and it is best to learn to walk with stilts with the pegs set low to the ground. As the Pathfinder develops skill, the foot pegs can be raised.


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{{Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Problematic requirement
|This honor originated in the SPD, targeted a New Zealand Pathfinders who could visit a pa site with reasonable ease. When accepted by the GC is was not modified to reflect the goal of making all honors accessible to all Pathfinders.
|Visit an old pa site in your locality (if you live in New Zealand) or watch a documentary about an old pa site or the New Zealand Wars (if you live elsewhere) and make a brief written report on what you could see.
}}


The word '''pā''' (pronounced pah) refers to a Māori village, generally one from the 19th century or earlier that was fortified for defence. In Māori society, a great pā represented the mana of a tribal group, as personified by a chief or rangatira.


Nearly all pā were built in defensible locations to protect dwelling sites or gardens, almost always on prominent, raised ground which was then terraced; as for example in the Auckland region, where dormant volcanic cones were used. While built for defence, many were also primarily residential, and often quite extensive.


Māori pā played a significant role in the New Zealand Land Wars, though they are known from earlier periods of Māori history. They were mostly absent, however, until around 500 years ago, suggesting scarcity of resources through environmental damage and population pressure began to bring about warfare, leading to a period of pā building.

===Fortification=== 
[[Image:Mt Eden terraces.JPG|thumb|right|Terraces on Mt Eden, Auckland, marking the sites of the defensive palisades and ditches of this former pā.]]


Their main defence was the use of earth ramparts (or terraced hillsides), topped with stakes or wicker barriers. The historically later versions were constructed by people who were fighting with muskets and hand weapons (such as spear, taiaha and mere) against the British Army and armed constabulary, who were armed with swords, rifles, and heavy weapons such as howitzers and rocket artillery.


Pā were often put in place in very limited time scales, sometimes less than two days, and resisted attack for many hours and, sometimes, weeks. Military historians like John Keegan have noted that Māori recognition of the strong resistance of earth fortifications against modern weapons (especially artillery) predates the successful defensive use of trenches and sloped earth ramparts in World War I by many decades.


Warrior chiefs like Te Ruki Kawiti realised these properties as a good counter to the greater firepower of the British. With that in mind, they sometimes built pā purposefully to resist the British Empire's forces, like at Ruapekapeka, which was constructed specifically to draw the enemy, instead of protecting a specific site or place of habitation like more traditional pās. At the Battle of Ruapekapeka, the British suffered 45 casualties, against only 30 amongst the Māori. Afterwards, British engineers twice surveyed the fortifications, produced a scale model and tabled the plans in the House of Commons.


The fortifications of such a purpose-built pa included palisades of puriri trunks and split timber, with bundles of protective flax padding, the two lines of palisade covering a firing trench with individual pits, while more defenders could use the second palisade to fire over the heads of the first below. Simple communication trenches or tunnels were also built to connect the various parts, as found at Ohaeawai Pā or Ruapekapeka. The forts could even include underground bunkers, protected by a thick layer of earth over wooden beams, which sheltered the inhabitants during periods of heavy shelling by artillery.


A limiting factor of the Māori fortifications that were not built as set pieces, however, was the need for the people inhabiting them to leave frequently to cultivate areas for food, or to gather it from the wilderness. Consequently, pā would often be abandoned for 4 to 6 months of each year.

===Examples=== 
The old pā remains found on Maungakiekie/One Tree Hill, New Zealand, close to the center of Auckland, represent one of the largest known sites as well as one of the largest pre-historic earthworks fortifications known worldwide.


The word pā can refer to any Māori village or defensive settlement, but often refers to hill forts – fortified settlements with palisades and defensive terraces – and also to fortified villages. Pā are mainly in the North Island of New Zealand, north of Lake Taupo. Over 5000 sites have been located, photographed and examined although few have been subject to detailed analysis.


For more details, start with [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%81|this article].

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==References== 
* [http://history-nz.org/kite.html Māori Kites]
* [http://www.maori.org.nz/Tikanga/default.asp?pid=sp45&parent=42 Tangihanga procedures]
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=gemgFqF831QC&pg=PA72&lpg=PA72&dq=maori+mealtime+customs&source=bl&ots=iVvnj6Y5hM&sig=U_hTRfsLLKZvRT1K1v4lYC9DcKo&hl=en&ei=wkufSei3PN-BtwfVwMGODQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA38,M1 Maori Symbolism]
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=XXa3fXxLshMC&pg=PA98&lpg=PA98&dq=maori+sleeping+customs&source=bl&ots=ANX0VOoNy2&sig=wxOIIfeyEEVPrXmP3dEUFch8Yi8&hl=en&ei=g-2xSc22O4_ftgfY3cDEBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=7&ct=result#PPA99,M1 Tikanga Māori], by Sidney M. Mead, Hirini Moko Mead
* [http://spd.adventistconnect.org/education-history-statistics Adventist Connect - Education History]
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=y9l93XMRljwC&pg=PA305&lpg=PA305&dq=adventist+maori+story&source=bl&ots=r1mYKdoFss&sig=i1g8X9I2XK9vpdEZsQMEw1FYNlo&hl=en&ei=t9O5Sa3qBJGgM-XGjbII&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result#PPA107,M1 May the People Live], by Raeburn Lange.

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AY Honors/Guitar/Requirements

2021-09-20T20:21:33Z

BoisSar:

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<section begin=Body />

<b>1. <section begin=req1 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Research the history of guitars and how they came to your country.
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<b>2. <section begin=req2 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Describe or show the difference between melody, harmony and rhythm.
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<b>3. <section begin=req3 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Distinguish three different types of guitars. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of each type.
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<b>4. <section begin=req4 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Identify the three divisions of the guitar and identify 15 different parts, explaining the function of each part.
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<b>5. <section begin=req5 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Demonstrate the correct posture to practice guitar. Explain the importance of practicing in that position.
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<b>6. <section begin=req6 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Know the names of the fingers, strings and hand positions. Demonstrate each in its proper way.
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<b>7. <section begin=req7 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>In standard tuning, the 6 strings on a guitar are associated with which notes?
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<b>8. <section begin=req8 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>What are the chords (figures) and how are they built? Write by memory a list of all major and minor chords, along with specific finger positions.
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<b>9. <section begin=req9 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Demonstrate ability to perform at least seven major and minor chords (ex. A, B, B<sup>7</sup>, C, D, E, G, F, A minor).
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<b>10. <section begin=req10 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Explain the difference between flats and sharps. Show how they are represented for guitar play.
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<b>11. <section begin=req11 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Describe the difference between nylon and steel stringing, and explain the reason behind your preference.
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<b>12. <section begin=req12 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Demonstrate the use of a capo and how to replace a guitar string.
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<section begin=challenge />
<b>13. <section begin=req13 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Play a song using at least two different techniques:
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:<b>a. <section begin=req13a /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Strumming
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:<b>b. <section begin=req13b /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Fingerpicking
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:<b>c. <section begin=req13c /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Classical
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:<b>d. <section begin=req13d /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Other
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<section end=challenge />

<b>14. <section begin=req14 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Select three simple hymns or spiritual songs that you can play on guitar, and teach them to a unit, club or group.
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<section end=Body />

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AY Honors/Guitar/Answer Key

2021-09-20T20:20:16Z

BoisSar:

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Melody is the main tune of a piece of music. It is the line a single voice would follow when singing a song.


Harmony (or counter melody) is any line that fits along with the melody to enhance and broaden the music.
Usually a harmony is complementary to the melody, but that is not always the case.


Rhythm describes how the notes of the melody and any harmony exist across time. The same sequence of notes will become a different
tune when the rhythm changes.


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There are three main styles that guitars come in: acoustic guitar, electric guitar, and classical guitar.


'''Acoustic Guitar''':
These guitars may come in various styles and sizes but for the most part they share several common features. For one they usually have a sound hole for the sound to come out of. Also, the inside of the body is hollow which allows the sound to bounce around inside the guitar. This means that you do not need external amplification in order to hear the sound of the guitar clearly. However, depending on the gauge of the string and other factors, this type of guitar might be harder to play that other styles of guitars.


'''Electric guitar''':
There is even more variation in styles when it comes to electric guitars. There are three main body types: the "Les Paul", the "Strat", and the "Super Strat." Most electric guitars (with the exception of hollow-body and semi hollow-body guitars) use a solid body. This means that in order to hear the guitar you need external amplification such as an amplifier or a PA. This means that electric guitars are not as portable as acoustic guitars. However, they are more versatile when it come to the sound it can produce. The electric guitar can be used with different pickups, amps, and effect pedals to achieve many different sounds.


'''Classical Guitar:'''
Classical guitars are very similar to acoustic guitars but there are some differences. Classical guitars or flamenco guitars use nylon strings. Also, the body tends to be smaller than most acoustic guitars and the neck is thicker. The nylon strings on these guitars give an overall warmer sound than acoustic and electric guitars. This makes it ideal for classical guitar and jazz.


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The three major divisions are the headstock, neck and body. These are some of the parts on a guitar


'''- Tuning head:''' the part on the headstock that holds the string and allows the string to be tuned


'''- String:''' These are usually made from steel, bronze, or nylon. In the past they were made from gut. When the strings are plucked or strummed, they produce vibrations which produce sound.


'''- Nut:''' The nut is the bone piece between the headstock and the fretboad. This raises the string so that they are not touching the fret board. They are either made with bone or plastic.


'''- fretboard:''' The front of the guitar neck where guitar players place their fingers.


'''- fret:''' Thick metal wires on the fretboard that separate the different pitches on the the fretboard. The fretboard is organized in half steps. Some guitars do not have frets.


'''- fret markers:''' These are inlays on the fret board and the side of the neck. These help the guitarist to quickly find a specific fret.


'''- Bridge:''' Much like the nut, the bridge helps raise the strings so they do not touch the frets. On electric guitars this can be adjusted to get different string height or action.


'''- Saddle:''' The saddle hold the bridge, and in most cases the strings. Electric guitars usually don't have a saddle.


'''- Sound hole:''' The hole in the front of the guitar through which sound comes out. Most electric guitars don't have sound holes.


'''- Sound Board/Guitar Top:''' The top of the guitar body. This is what produces most of the sound in a guitar. Because of this higher quality wood is used on the top that on the sides or back. In electric guitars the wood is not as important as acoustic guitars.


'''- Pickup:''' These are devices that pick up the vibrations in the strings or in the wood and turn them into an electronic signal. In electric guitars the pickups are in the body and under the strings. In acoustic/ electric guitars, they are usually installed under the bridge or under the saddle.


'''- Tone/ Volume knobs:''' These are potentiometers on the guitar that control the tone or volume of a pickup or set of pickups.


'''- Pickup selector switch:''' If a guitar has more than one pickup, there will also be a switch to choose different pickups, combinations of pickups, or pickup configurations.


'''- Preamp:''' These are more common on acoustic/electric guitars. Like the tone and volume knobs, they help control the volume and shape the sound before going into an amplifier.


'''- Jack:''' The output that allows the signal of a pickup to go to an amplifier or other device. It is usually a female mono 1/4 inch jack but can also be XLR.


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The posture of a guitarist depends partly on the style of playing. However, guitarist should make sure that when they are playing there is not unnecessary strain on pain on the joints or other part of the body. If there is pain (other than on the tips of the fingers) you should stop playing and rest as playing in that position could cause permanent damage to the joint or other part of the body.


'''Sitting:''' When sitting the guitarist should make sure that the wrist on his fretting hand is relatively straight. Playing with a bent wrist could cause pain and eventually permanent damage to the joint. Classical guitarist sit with their backs straight, shoulders relaxed, and sitting near the edge of their sear. The right foot should be flat on the floor (for right handed guitar players) and the other foot is either on a foot stool or flat on the floor as well. The contour of the guitar rest on left leg. The neck is pointed up. This makes it easier and more comfortable to play on any position in the neck


Other guitarists tend to rest the guitar on the right leg. The posture is very similar.


'''Standing:''' When standing the strap should be adjusted so that the guitar is around waist level. The neck should be pointing up.


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From high string (thinnest) to low (thickest) the strings are E, B, G, D, A, E. One memory device to help remember the strings is the phrase, "Easter Bunnies Go Dancing At Easter."


On a piano keyboard your high E string is the E just above middle C with your low E being two octaves below that.


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A chord is a group of three or more notes that is played together. In the case of minor and major chords, they are build using the Root, or first note, third note, and the fifth note of their respective scale. For example:


Here is the 'C' scale


C D E F G A B C
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8


To make build the C major chord we would use C, which is the first note, E, the third note, and G, the fifth note. So if we wanted to play a C chord we need to hit these three notes. An open C chord is played like so:


e||-0--- <== This is an 'E'
B||-1--- <== This is a 'C'
G||-0--- <== This is a 'G'
D||-2--- <== This is an 'E'
A||-3--- <== This is a 'C'
E||-X--- <== This string is not played in an open C chord.


To make a C minor chord we use the same scale but the third note is flat. In the case of the C major chord, we used 'C', 'E', 'G'. To make it a minor chord we would use 'C', 'Eb', and 'G'. One way to play this chord is:


e||-3--- <== This is an 'G'
B||-4--- <== This is a 'Eb'
G||-5--- <== This is a 'C'
D||-5--- <== This is an 'G'
A||-3--- <== This is a 'C'
E||-X--- <== This string is not played in an open C chord.


It should be noted that because of the way the guitar fretboard is built there are many ways, voicings, to play the same chord.


'''CAGED Method'''


Another thing that should be noted is because of the way the fretboard is built, chord shapes can be moved. This is an easy way to find all the major and minor chords without necessarily memorizing all the chords. There are three requirements for this: 1. know a little bit of music theory, 2. know the basic chord shapes, and 3. know how to play bar chords.


When you bar a chord it is like you are using a capo or moving the nut, essentially changing the pitch of that note or chord. Because of this, you can build a chord using only the root note and the basic chord shapes. For example, this is an 'E' major chord:


e||-0---
B||-0--- This is the "E major" shape
G||-1---
D||-2---
A||-2---
E||-0--- <== Using this method we only look at the root.


In this case the root note is "E". Before we start building chords we first have to see how the fretboard is organized. On the fretboard, the notes are in half step intervals. Since the root note is on the low E string in the "E" shape, if we learn the notes on the "E" string, we can use the E shape to find the chord.
This is the low E string:
E||-F-|-F#-|-G-|-G#-|-A-|-A#-|-B-|-C-|-C#-|-D-|-D#-|-E-|
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

*''The numbers are the frets.''
**''Note that there is a half step between E and F and between B and C
So to find a chord we simply find the root note and play the shape. For example, if you wanted to play a G# major chord, you would bar on the 4th fret and play an "E" shape like so:
e||-4---
B||-4--- This is the "E major" shape
G||-5---
D||-6---
A||-6---
E||-4--- <== The root note is G#


The same can be done with the "E minor" shape. This is the "E minor" shape:
e||-0---
B||-0--- This is the "E major" shape
G||-0---
D||-2---
A||-2---
E||-0--- <== Using this method we only look at the root.
So to play a G# minor we would again bar the 4th fret and apply the "E minor" shape like so:
e||-4---
B||-4--- This is the "E minor" shape
G||-4---
D||-6---
A||-6---
E||-4--- <== The root note is G#


This can be done with all the basic Chord shapes: C, A, G, E, and D. This is one of the reasons it is called the CAGED method. This is however a very broad topic and guitarist are encourage to find out more on their own or through a tutor.


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A flat note is represented by a 'b'. When a note is flat it goes half a pitch down.


A sharp note is represented by a '#'. When a note is sharp it goes half a pitch up.


The guitar is organized in half step intervals so if we wanted to play a G# on the low E string, we would go to G which is on the third fret. Then we would need to go up one fret, to the 4th fret, to get to G#.


Similarly, since G is on 3rd fret on the low E string, Gb is on the 2nd fret of the low E string.


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'''Nylon:''' Nylon strings are made of synthetic materials. If you buy nylon string they usually come in different tensions such as low tension strings and normal tension strings. They are usually easier to press than steel strings and they are also thicker. Because of they they hurt less when people are beginning to play. The notes are warmer when they are played, especially the treble notes. The bass notes are also fuller on nylon strings. They are often used in classical guitar, flamenco, and jazz. Nylon strings also allow for more expression and nuances than steel strings.


'''Steel:''' Steel strings can be made using many different materials. Some of the most common are steel and brass. When you buy steel strings they come in gauges rather then tensions. For example, you can get a set where the high E string is 0.09mm or 0.10 mm. The bigger the gauge the better the sound. However, increasing the gauge also makes it harder to play. While nylon strings are warm, steel strings tend to be very bright, and have less pronounced bass notes. This makes them good for most styles of music, and thus they are more versatile than nylon strings.


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==References== 

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AY Honors/Guitar/Answer Key

2021-09-20T20:19:23Z

BoisSar:

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Melody is the main tune of a piece of music. It is the line a single voice would follow when singing a song.


Harmony (or counter melody) is any line that fits along with the melody to enhance and broaden the music.
Usually a harmony is complementary to the melody, but that is not always the case.


Rhythm describes how the notes of the melody and any harmony exist across time. The same sequence of notes will become a different
tune when the rhythm changes.


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There are three main styles that guitars come in: acoustic guitar, electric guitar, and classical guitar.


'''Acoustic Guitar''':
These guitars may come in various styles and sizes but for the most part they share several common features. For one they usually have a sound hole for the sound to come out of. Also, the inside of the body is hollow which allows the sound to bounce around inside the guitar. This means that you do not need external amplification in order to hear the sound of the guitar clearly. However, depending on the gauge of the string and other factors, this type of guitar might be harder to play that other styles of guitars.


'''Electric guitar''':
There is even more variation in styles when it comes to electric guitars. There are three main body types: the "Les Paul", the "Strat", and the "Super Strat." Most electric guitars (with the exception of hollow-body and semi hollow-body guitars) use a solid body. This means that in order to hear the guitar you need external amplification such as an amplifier or a PA. This means that electric guitars are not as portable as acoustic guitars. However, they are more versatile when it come to the sound it can produce. The electric guitar can be used with different pickups, amps, and effect pedals to achieve many different sounds.


'''Classical Guitar:'''
Classical guitars are very similar to acoustic guitars but there are some differences. Classical guitars or flamenco guitars use nylon strings. Also, the body tends to be smaller than most acoustic guitars and the neck is thicker. The nylon strings on these guitars give an overall warmer sound than acoustic and electric guitars. This makes it ideal for classical guitar and jazz.


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The three major divisions are the headstock, neck and body. These are some of the parts on a guitar


'''- Tuning head:''' the part on the headstock that holds the string and allows the string to be tuned


'''- String:''' These are usually made from steel, bronze, or nylon. In the past they were made from gut. When the strings are plucked or strummed, they produce vibrations which produce sound.


'''- Nut:''' The nut is the bone piece between the headstock and the fretboad. This raises the string so that they are not touching the fret board. They are either made with bone or plastic.


'''- fretboard:''' The front of the guitar neck where guitar players place their fingers.


'''- fret:''' Thick metal wires on the fretboard that separate the different pitches on the the fretboard. The fretboard is organized in half steps. Some guitars do not have frets.


'''- fret markers:''' These are inlays on the fret board and the side of the neck. These help the guitarist to quickly find a specific fret.


'''- Bridge:''' Much like the nut, the bridge helps raise the strings so they do not touch the frets. On electric guitars this can be adjusted to get different string height or action.


'''- Saddle:''' The saddle hold the bridge, and in most cases the strings. Electric guitars usually don't have a saddle.


'''- Sound hole:''' The hole in the front of the guitar through which sound comes out. Most electric guitars don't have sound holes.


'''- Sound Board/Guitar Top:''' The top of the guitar body. This is what produces most of the sound in a guitar. Because of this higher quality wood is used on the top that on the sides or back. In electric guitars the wood is not as important as acoustic guitars.


'''- Pickup:''' These are devices that pick up the vibrations in the strings or in the wood and turn them into an electronic signal. In electric guitars the pickups are in the body and under the strings. In acoustic/ electric guitars, they are usually installed under the bridge or under the saddle.


'''- Tone/ Volume knobs:''' These are potentiometers on the guitar that control the tone or volume of a pickup or set of pickups.


'''- Pickup selector switch:''' If a guitar has more than one pickup, there will also be a switch to choose different pickups, combinations of pickups, or pickup configurations.


'''- Preamp:''' These are more common on acoustic/electric guitars. Like the tone and volume knobs, they help control the volume and shape the sound before going into an amplifier.


'''- Jack:''' The output that allows the signal of a pickup to go to an amplifier or other device. It is usually a female mono 1/4 inch jack but can also be XLR.


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The posture of a guitarist depends partly on the style of playing. However, guitarist should make sure that when they are playing there is not unnecessary strain on pain on the joints or other part of the body. If there is pain (other than on the tips of the fingers) you should stop playing and rest as playing in that position could cause permanent damage to the joint or other part of the body.


'''Sitting:''' When sitting the guitarist should make sure that the wrist on his fretting hand is relatively straight. Playing with a bent wrist could cause pain and eventually permanent damage to the joint. Classical guitarist sit with their backs straight, shoulders relaxed, and sitting near the edge of their sear. The right foot should be flat on the floor (for right handed guitar players) and the other foot is either on a foot stool or flat on the floor as well. The contour of the guitar rest on left leg. The neck is pointed up. This makes it easier and more comfortable to play on any position in the neck


Other guitarists tend to rest the guitar on the right leg. The posture is very similar.


'''Standing:''' When standing the strap should be adjusted so that the guitar is around waist level. The neck should be pointing up.


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From high string (thinnest) to low (thickest) the strings are E, B, G, D, A, E. One memory device to help remember the strings is the phrase, "Easter Bunnies Go Dancing At Easter."


On a piano keyboard your high E string is the E just above middle C with your low E being two octaves below that.


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A chord is a group of three or more notes that is played together. In the case of minor and major chords, they are build using the Root, or first note, third note, and the fifth note of their respective scale. For example:


Here is the 'C' scale


C D E F G A B C
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8


To make build the C major chord we would use C, which is the first note, E, the third note, and G, the fifth note. So if we wanted to play a C chord we need to hit these three notes. An open C chord is played like so:


e||-0--- <== This is an 'E'
B||-1--- <== This is a 'C'
G||-0--- <== This is a 'G'
D||-2--- <== This is an 'E'
A||-3--- <== This is a 'C'
E||-X--- <== This string is not played in an open C chord.


To make a C minor chord we use the same scale but the third note is flat. In the case of the C major chord, we used 'C', 'E', 'G'. To make it a minor chord we would use 'C', 'Eb', and 'G'. One way to play this chord is:


e||-3--- <== This is an 'G'
B||-4--- <== This is a 'Eb'
G||-5--- <== This is a 'C'
D||-5--- <== This is an 'G'
A||-3--- <== This is a 'C'
E||-X--- <== This string is not played in an open C chord.


It should be noted that because of the way the guitar fretboard is built there are many ways, voicings, to play the same chord.


'''CAGED Method'''


Another thing that should be noted is because of the way the fretboard is built, chord shapes can be moved. This i an easy way to find all the major and minor chords without necessarily memorizing all the chords. There are three requirements for this: 1. know a little bit of music theory, 2. now the basic chord shapes, and 3. know how to play bar chords.


When you bar a chord it is like you are using a capo or moving the nut, essentially changing the pitch of that note or chord. Because of this, you can build a chord using only the root note and the basic chord shapes. For example, this is an 'E' major chord:


e||-0---
B||-0--- This is the "E major" shape
G||-1---
D||-2---
A||-2---
E||-0--- <== Using this method we only look at the root.


In this case the root note is "E". Before we start building chords we first have to see how the fretboard is organized. On the fretboard, the notes are in half step intervals. Since the root note is on the low E string in the "E" shape, if we learn the notes on the "E" string, we can use the E shape to find the chord.
This is the low E string:
E||-F-|-F#-|-G-|-G#-|-A-|-A#-|-B-|-C-|-C#-|-D-|-D#-|-E-|
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

*''The numbers are the frets.''
**''Note that there is a half step between E and F and between B and C
So to find a chord we simply find the root note and play the shape. For example, if you wanted to play a G# major chord, you would bar on the 4th fret and play an "E" shape like so:
e||-4---
B||-4--- This is the "E major" shape
G||-5---
D||-6---
A||-6---
E||-4--- <== The root note is G#


The same can be done with the "E minor" shape. This is the "E minor" shape:
e||-0---
B||-0--- This is the "E major" shape
G||-0---
D||-2---
A||-2---
E||-0--- <== Using this method we only look at the root.
So to play a G# minor we would again bar the 4th fret and apply the "E minor" shape like so:
e||-4---
B||-4--- This is the "E minor" shape
G||-4---
D||-6---
A||-6---
E||-4--- <== The root note is G#


This can be done with all the basic Chord shapes: C, A, G, E, and D. This is one of the reasons it is called the CAGED method. This is however a very broad topic and guitarist are encourage to find out more on their own or through a tutor.


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A flat note is represented by a 'b'. When a note is flat it goes half a pitch down.


A sharp note is represented by a '#'. When a note is sharp it goes half a pitch up.


The guitar is organized in half step intervals so if we wanted to play a G# on the low E string, we would go to G which is on the third fret. Then we would need to go up one fret, to the 4th fret, to get to G#.


Similarly, since G is on 3rd fret on the low E string, Gb is on the 2nd fret of the low E string.


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'''Nylon:''' Nylon strings are made of synthetic materials. If you buy nylon string they usually come in different tensions such as low tension strings and normal tension strings. They are usually easier to press than steel strings and they are also thicker. Because of they they hurt less when people are beginning to play. The notes are warmer when they are played, especially the treble notes. The bass notes are also fuller on nylon strings. They are often used in classical guitar, flamenco, and jazz. Nylon strings also allow for more expression and nuances than steel strings.


'''Steel:''' Steel strings can be made using many different materials. Some of the most common are steel and brass. When you buy steel strings they come in gauges rather then tensions. For example, you can get a set where the high E string is 0.09mm or 0.10 mm. The bigger the gauge the better the sound. However, increasing the gauge also makes it harder to play. While nylon strings are warm, steel strings tend to be very bright, and have less pronounced bass notes. This makes them good for most styles of music, and thus they are more versatile than nylon strings.


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==References== 

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AY Honors/Guitar/Answer Key

2021-09-20T20:18:19Z

BoisSar:

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Melody is the main tune of a piece of music. It is the line a single voice would follow when singing a song.


Harmony (or counter melody) is any line that fits along with the melody to enhance and broaden the music.
Usually a harmony is complementary to the melody, but that is not always the case.


Rhythm describes how the notes of the melody and any harmony exist across time. The same sequence of notes will become a different
tune when the rhythm changes.


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There are three main styles that guitars come in: acoustic guitar, electric guitar, and classical guitar.


'''Acoustic Guitar''':
These guitars may come in various styles and sizes but for the most part they share several common features. For one they usually have a sound hole for the sound to come out of. Also, the inside of the body is hollow which allows the sound to bounce around inside the guitar. This means that you do not need external amplification in order to hear the sound of the guitar clearly. However, depending on the gauge of the string and other factors, this type of guitar might be harder to play that other styles of guitars.


'''Electric guitar''':
There is even more variation in styles when it comes to electric guitars. There are three main body types: the "Les Paul", the "Strat", and the "Super Strat." Most electric guitars (with the exception of hollow-body and semi hollow-body guitars) use a solid body. This means that in order to hear the guitar you need external amplification such as an amplifier or a PA. This means that electric guitars are not as portable as acoustic guitars. However, they are more versatile when it come to the sound it can produce. The electric guitar can be used with different pickups, amps, and effect pedals to achieve many different sounds.


'''Classical Guitar:'''
Classical guitars are very similar to acoustic guitars but there are some differences. Classical guitars or flamenco guitars use nylon strings. Also, the body tends to be smaller than most acoustic guitars and the neck is thicker. The nylon strings on these guitars give an overall warmer sound than acoustic and electric guitars. This makes it ideal for classical guitar and jazz.


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The three major divisions are the headstock, neck and body. These are some of the parts on a guitar


'''- Tuning head:''' the part on the headstock that holds the string and allows the string to be tuned


'''- String:''' These are usually made from steel, bronze, or nylon. In the past they were made from gut. When the strings are plucked or strummed, they produce vibrations which produce sound.


'''- Nut:''' The nut is the bone piece between the headstock and the fretboad. This raises the string so that they are not touching the fret board. They are either made with bone or plastic.


'''- fretboard:''' The front of the guitar neck where guitar players place their fingers.


'''- fret:''' Thick metal wires on the fretboard that separate the different pitches on the the fretboard. The fretboard is organized in half steps. Some guitars do not have frets.


'''- fret markers:''' These are inlays on the fret board and the side of the neck. These help the guitarist to quickly find a specific fret.


'''- Bridge:''' Much like the nut, the bridge helps raise the strings so they do not touch the frets. On electric guitars this can be adjusted to get different string height or action.


'''- Saddle:''' The saddle hold the bridge, and in most cases the strings. Electric guitars usually don't have a saddle.


'''- Sound hole:''' The hole in the front of the guitar through which sound comes out. Most electric guitars don't have sound holes.


'''- Sound Board/Guitar Top:''' The top of the guitar body. This is what produces most of the sound in a guitar. Because of this higher quality wood is used on the top that on the sides or back. In electric guitars the wood is not as important as acoustic guitars.


'''- Pickup:''' These are devices that pick up the vibrations in the strings or in the wood and turn them into an electronic signal. In electric guitars the pickups are in the body and under the strings. In acoustic/ electric guitars, they are usually installed under the bridge or under the saddle.


'''- Tone/ Volume knobs:''' These are potentiometers on the guitar that control the tone or volume of a pickup or set of pickups.


'''- Pickup selector switch:''' If a guitar has more than one pickup, there will also be a switch to choose different pickups, combinations of pickups, or pickup configurations.


'''- Preamp:''' These are more common on acoustic/electric guitars. Like the tone and volume knobs, they help control the volume and shape the sound before going into an amplifier.


'''- Jack:''' The output that allows the signal of a pickup to go to an amplifier or other device. It is usually a female mono 1/4 inch jack but can also be XLR.


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The posture of a guitarist depends partly on the style of playing. However, guitarist should make sure that when they are playing there is not unnecessary strain on pain on the joints or other part of the body. If there is pain (other than on the tips of the fingers) you should stop playing and rest as playing in that position could cause permanent damage to the joint or other part of the body.


'''Sitting:''' When sitting the guitarist should make sure that the wrist on his fretting hand is relatively straight. Playing with a bent wrist could cause pain and eventually permanent damage to the joint. Classical guitarist sit with their backs straight, shoulders relaxed, and sitting near the edge of their sear. The right foot should be flat on the floor (for right handed guitar players) and the other foot is either on a foot stool or flat on the floor as well. The contour of the guitar rest on left leg. The neck is pointed up. This makes it easier and more comfortable to play on any position in the neck


Other guitarists tend to rest the guitar on the right leg. The posture is very similar.


'''Standing:''' When standing the strap should be adjusted so that the guitar is around waist level. The neck should be pointing up.


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From high string (thinnest) to low (thickest) the strings are E, B, G, D, A, E. One memory device to help remember the strings is the phrase, "Easter Bunnies Go Dancing At Easter."


On a piano keyboard your high E string is the E just above middle C with your low E being two octaves below that.


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A chord is a group of three or more notes that is played together. In the case of minor and major chords, they are build using the Root, or first note, third note, and the fifth note of their respective scale. For example:


Here is the 'C' scale


C D E F G A B C
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8


To make build the C major chord we would use C, which is the first note, E, the third note, and G, the fifth note. So if we wanted to play a C chord we need to hit these three notes. An open C chord is played like so:


e||-0--- <== This is an 'E'
B||-1--- <== This is a 'C'
G||-0--- <== This is a 'G'
D||-2--- <== This is an 'E'
A||-3--- <== This is a 'C'
E||-X--- <== This string is not played in an open C chord.


To make a C minor chord we use the same scale but the third note is flat. In the case of the C major chord, we used 'C', 'E', 'G'. To make it a minor chord we would use 'C', 'Eb', and 'G'. One way to play this chord is:


e||-3--- <== This is an 'G'
B||-4--- <== This is a 'Eb'
G||-5--- <== This is a 'C'
D||-5--- <== This is an 'G'
A||-3--- <== This is a 'C'
E||-X--- <== This string is not played in an open C chord.


It should be noted that because of the way the guitar fretboard is built there are many ways, voicings, to play the same chord.


'''CAGED Method'''


Another thing that should be noted is because of the way the fretboard is built, chord shapes can be moved. This i an easy way to find all the major and minor chords without necessarily memorizing all the chords. There are three requirements for this: 1. know a little bit of music theory, 2. now the basic chord shapes, and 3. know how to play bar chords.


When you bar a chord it is like you are using a capo or moving the nut, essentially changing the pitch of that note or chord. Because of this, you can build a chord using only the root note and the basic chord shapes. For example, this is an 'E' major chord:


e||-0---
B||-0--- This is the "E major" shape
G||-1---
D||-2---
A||-2---
E||-0--- <== Using this method we only look at the root.


In this case the root note is "E". Before we start building chords we first have to see how the fretboard is organized. On the fretboard, the notes are in half step intervals. Since the root note is on the low E string in the "E" shape, if we learn the notes on the "E" string, we can use the E shape to find the chord.
This is the low E string:
E||-F-|-F#-|-G-|-G#-|-A-|-A#-|-B-|-C-|-C#-|-D-|-D#-|-E-|
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

*''The numbers are the frets.''
**''Note that there is a half step between E and F and between B and C
So to find a chord we simply find the root note and play the shape. For example, if you wanted to play a G# major chord, you would bar on the 4th fret and play an "E" shape like so:
e||-4---
B||-4--- This is the "E major" shape
G||-5---
D||-6---
A||-6---
E||-4--- <== The root note is G#


The same can be done with the "E minor" shape. This is the "E minor" shape:
e||-0---
B||-0--- This is the "E major" shape
G||-0---
D||-2---
A||-2---
E||-0--- <== Using this method we only look at the root.
So to play a G# minor we would again bar the 4th fret and apply the "E minor" shape like so:
e||-4---
B||-4--- This is the "E minor" shape
G||-4---
D||-6---
A||-6---
E||-4--- <== The root note is G#


This can be done with all the basic Chord shapes: C, A, G, E, and D. This is one of the reasons it is called the CAGED method. This is however a very broad topic and guitarist are encourage to find out more on their own or through a tutor.


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A flat note is represented by a 'b'. When a note is flat it goes half a pitch down.


A sharp note is represented by a '#'. When a note is sharp it goes half a pitch up.


The guitar is organized in half step intervals so if we wanted to play a G# on the low E string, we would go to G which is on the third fret. Then we would need to go up one fret, to the 4th fret, to get to G#.


Similarly, since G is on 3rd fret on the low E string, Gb is on the 2nd fret of the low E string.


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'''Nylon:''' Nylon strings are made of synthetic materials. If you buy nylon string they usually come in different tensions such as low tension strings and normal tension strings. They are usually easier to press than steel strings and they are also thicker. Because of they they hurt less when people are beginning to play. The notes are warmer when they are played, especially the treble notes. The bass notes are also fuller on nylon strings. They are often used in classical guitar, flamenco, and jazz. Nylon strings also allow for more expression and nuances than steel strings.


'''Steel:''' Steel strings can be made using many different materials. Some of the most common are steel and brass. When you buy steel strings they come in gauges rather then tensions. For example, you can get a set where the high E string is 0.09mm or 0.10 mm. The bigger the gauge the better the sound. However, increasing the gauge also makes it harder to play. While nylon strings are warm, steel strings tend to be very bright, and have less pronounced bass notes. This makes them good for most styles of music, and thus they are more versatile than nylon strings.


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==References== 

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AY Honors/Dutch Oven Cooking/Requirements

2021-09-17T17:17:38Z

BoisSar:

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<b>1. <section begin=req1 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Earn the Cooking honor and the Camping Skills 3 honor.
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<b>2. <section begin=req2 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Give a brief history of Dutch ovens and their role in American history.
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<b>3. <section begin=req3 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Know the difference between a bread oven, a stew/meat oven, pot/stove top oven and a camp oven.
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<b>4. <section begin=req4 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>In what way are ovens sized?
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<b>5. <section begin=req5 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Know and demonstrate fire and Dutch oven handling safety and the proper use of equipment.
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<b>6. <section begin=req6 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>What types of fuels are used to cook with an oven?
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<b>7. <section begin=req7 /><noinclude><translate>
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<b>8. <section begin=req8 /><noinclude><translate>
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<b>9. <section begin=req9 /><noinclude><translate>
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<b>10. <section begin=req10 /><noinclude><translate>
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<b>11. <section begin=req11 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Demonstrate how to properly season a new Dutch oven.
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<b>12. <section begin=req12 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Demonstrate how to properly clean a Dutch oven after each use.
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<b>13. <section begin=req13 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Demonstrate how to properly transport Dutch ovens.
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<b>14. <section begin=req14 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Demonstrate how to properly store a Dutch oven for a short term and long term.
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<section begin=challenge />
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:<b>a. <section begin=req15a /><noinclude><translate>
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:<b>b. <section begin=req15b /><noinclude><translate>
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:<b>c. <section begin=req15c /><noinclude><translate>
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:<b>d. <section begin=req15d /><noinclude><translate>
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:<b>e. <section begin=req15e /><noinclude><translate>
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<b>16. <section begin=req16 /><noinclude><translate>
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<b>17. <section begin=req17 /><noinclude><translate>
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<b>18. <section begin=req18 /><noinclude><translate>
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<section end=Body />

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[[Category:Honor Requirements Revision 3|{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1|2}}]]
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AY Honors/Card Making/Answer Key

2021-08-15T17:14:37Z

BoisSar:

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Card stock is the most important part of your card - the main part (base) of the card. It is a sturdy kind of paper. Usually you use A5 or A4 size and fold the card stock into the desired size/shape. Card stock has many other uses within card making. For example to punch out shapes from, for hand made embellishments, and for stamped images or messages added 3D to base card, etc.


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Colored pens/markers used to decorate cards. For long-lasting cards/colors try looking for archival quality pens that don't smudge or bleed through. You can used them to outline drawings, color in drawings/stamps, write in captions/messages, etc.


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Your card making essential: a good pair of scissors! You need a sharp pair to cut your card stock and other embellishments. You may also want to use decorative scissors for fancy edges/corners or for creating your own embellishments (decorations).


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These are all the different decorative things you can add to your card. Embellishments come is all sorts of shapes and sizes: stickers, foam shapes, ribbons, different shaped or textured paper, beads, sequins, glitter, etc. etc. etc. Some embellishments come with a sticky back which makes them easy to add to your cards, others you will need to attach yourself. You can use glue, tape, string/ribbon or cut the card to hold the embellishments.


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The main types of rubber stamps: mounted stamps (on wood or plastic blocks), unmounted (or clings), clears (acrylic), foam stamps & digital stamps. All stamps have unique designs in them that can be imprinted on to a card with the use of colored ink (on inkpads). You may choose to color in the stamped imprint.


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Much like felt markers, these are different ways to add color and decorate your card.


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Used with rubber stamps to imprint the stamp designs on to your cards. By running the ink pad along the edge of card stock they can also add a colored edge. They come in various colors, types and sizes.


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Simple die-cutters that can cut out specific shapes. Small hand-held punchers are best for younger card-makers or simple projects. There are also sophisticated systems & industrial sized die-cutters that come with all sorts of patterns and punch out the shapes for larger scaled projects or for more advanced card-makers.


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Glossy card stock is great for backgrounds and accents. Remember, many markers and inks don't adhere to glossy surfaces as well so you need to make sure the ink dries. Glossy card stock is great for punching out shapes or can be "treated" with different methods for unique textures and coloring.


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Corrugated paper is a wavy or crimped heavy craft paper that is usually found in the middle of cardboard. It makes a great background for layering different sheets and decorations on cards. Corrugated paper gives cards an extra dimension/height.


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Mulberry paper and other similar fibrous, delicate handmade papers are ideal for backgrounds and borders. Their unique texture and patterns also make these specialty papers good for layering and accentuating embellishments, lining envelopes or wrapping cards as sleeves. The best way to cut mulberry and similar papers is by TEARING (run damp paint brush along paper using ruler as guide then hand tear) methods, this way the fibers give the edges a softer, more natural, organic look.


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This sheer, translucent (some say transparent) craft paper is a good way to add dimension or layers to cards and gives cards a "cloudy or dreamy" look, most often used in wedding invitations. Some vellum can be printed on, others don't hold ink well so be sure to check before putting into printers or start stamping/writing on them. Vellum works like parchment paper and is great for tracing if you have a light box or for stenciling. Because of its crispy nature, vellum is also used in making cut-outs. Vellum envelopes and card-sleeves give cards a classy finish. Vellum can also be used for a transparent base card with front embellishment placed to hide the inside message.


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Scrapbook paper can make quick and easy backgrounds for your cards, and make very attractive cards in a short time.


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Don't throw away your gift wrap! Treat wrapping paper like you would any printed scrapbooking paper. They can be used as borders and backgrounds for your cards. You can also cut out designs or images from the wrapping paper, glue on to card stock and with the help of foam tape you can make unique embellishments, or add decoupage to your cards as they often have repeating patterns.


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Ink pads vary depending on the type of ink you choose. Here is a description on the basic types of ink.


;Dye-based ink: Dye-based ink is a good choice for many kinds of paper. It's permanent and has a watery consistency, meaning it dries quickly. Most are not waterproof, which means you can’t color stamped images with paint, pens or other water-based coloring tools because the ink will run together. Tip: Colored pencils work well. Many dye-based inks are acid-free, but will fade with time and too much exposure to sunlight. Avoid using on mulberry paper, since this type of ink will bleed on very absorbent paper.


;Pigment ink: Pigment ink is thicker and richer and is more like mayonnaise. The colors are bright and vibrant and the ink pads are spongy. They’re fade-resistant. Pigment ink doesn’t soak into paper like a dye-based ink and does the opposite --it dries on top. Because of this, the ink needs more time to dry on regular paper, but the advantage gained is that it produces more vivid colors. Please note that pigment ink will NOT dry on glossy paper. If you really want to stamp pigment ink on glossy paper, you will have to heat-set it with an embossing gun for it to dry. Because pigment ink stays wet for so long, it’s perfect for heat embossing!


;Embossing ink: Embossing inks are used to stamp an image before heat-embossing. They come as inkpads in clear or tinted ink or as embossing pens. The pens make it easy to select details to emboss in a stamped image, add or remove details or to hand draw your own image or message to be heat embossed. eg. modify a stamped message from "my..." to "our..."


;Distress ink: Distress inks are well known for their soft colors and special ''"alterable"'' possibilities. Distress ink stays wet longer than other dye-based ink pads, so you can blend and shadow with water or other inks. Tap some on a paper, then spritz it with water and watch the colors spread.


;Specialty inks: '''StazOn®, Alcohol Inks, Rainbow Pads, Sparkling Ink, Indian Ink, etc. '''


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# basic coloring in using colored pencils or markers
# chalking
# painting in the colors
# filling in image with pigment powder or glitter (use glue first to hold on to paper)


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Monochromatic means using only one color in different tints, shades and tones.


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A method of adding color and texture to your card stock. Use different sponges (cosmetic or sponge daubers), cut and dip into ink then dab sponge on to paper. Sponges will create different patterns and effects.


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Dry embossing or relief embossing, is a paper decorating method that creates raised patterns on the surface (your card stock) you are embossing. These patterns are made by tracing a stencil with a special tool, called a stylus. They will need:


* Light Box
* Stencil
* Masking Tape
* Card Stock
* Stylus


Alternatively place card stock in an embossing folder and run it through a die cut machine.


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In the club we set up a rubber stamp care station for kids to demonstrate cleaning the stamps they used during our card making time.


FOR CLEANING STAMPS, you will need:
a roll of Paper Towels (Viva brand is great because it doesn't leave tiny fibers)
a spray bottle with water
a spray bottle with gentle detergent or dish soap diluted with lots of water
a couple of trays lined with paper towels for drying & catching excess water


FOR STORING INK PADS, you will need to decide what your storage unit of choice will be.
Here are some options:
# deep Kleenex box, cut out a portion of the box so you can stand on its side (lengthwise, like a tower)& easily stack ink pads in.
# old cassette organizer/shelf (thrift stores might still have them!)
# fancy, expensive store bought shelves
# DIY inkpad foam holder -- there are several patterns and designs online, most use foam boards that you cut and glue to make shelves.


Depending on your ink type, you may want to explain that some folks turn their pads upside down so that the ink will stay closest to the top of the sponges and are ready to use right away. PIGMENT and sloppy inks are better left right-side up so they don't drip on to the lids. The key is ALWAYS --


(1) KEEP YOUR PADS LIDS ON;
(2) lay your pads FLAT so the ink doesn't run around and smudge (esp. on rainbow and multiple colored pads).


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THESE ARE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ADHESIVES or "Stick-em on"-ers. There are tons of adhesive options out there that have various effects on your cards dimensions & embellishments.


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lifts embellishments you are sticking on so they "pop up"


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SIMILAR TO FOAM DOTS but can be for bigger items, lifts embellishments you are sticking on so they "pop up"


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Flat adhesive, great for photos and thin or lightweight embellishments. Best method for attaching ribbon to cards.


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great for boarders and for adhering two sheets together


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invisible way to stick embellishments and hold sheets together


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-a decorative way to adhere things to cards because of the varieties on patterns and designs
-can also be used for trimmings and boarders


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See guide to each technique above


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The most enjoyable part of making cards is giving them away, so go bless some people. If you create 5 postcards and send them, you also fulfill one of the practical requirements of the [[AY Honors/Postcards - Advanced|Postcards - Advanced]] honor.


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'''"So, my brothers and sisters, be strong and stead, always enthusiastic about the Lord's work, for you know that nothing you do for the Lord is ever useless."'''
''-- much like an encouragement card or a morale booster''


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'''"Final Greetings: Tychicus, a much loved brother and faithful helper in the Lord's work, will tell you all about how I am getting along."'''
''In biblical days letters were hand delivered and often read to or sometimes recited word for word to the recipient (much like singing tele-grams!). Here is an example of how Paul doesn't even bother to tell his readers how he is and lets his messenger do it! Our modern day cards are usually how folks update each other on the latest happenings in each others lives.''


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'''"Greetings from Paul: This letter is from Paul and Timothy, slaves of Jesus Christ."'''
''This resembles a letterhead on a formal letter where you write the address and position of the writer. We usually don't need to add our titles on to greeting cards unless it is an official or business correspondence. ''


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'''"So, don't be misled, my brothers and sisters... be quick to listen, slow to speak, and slow to get angry."'''
''This passage from Paul gives us advice on how to act or re-act. Not many cards actually give sound advice these days, usually if and when a card gives advice its out of humor.''


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'''"This letter is from Paul, in prison for preaching the Good News about Christ Jesus, and from our brother Timothy."'''
''Paul signs his name and identifies who wrote it at the BEGINNING of his letters & ends with his wishes and prayers for the reader. Traditionally, we sign our cards at the bottom or end of the message & place greetings/blessings/well-wishes at the front.''


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==References== 
contributor: ArniLynne Tupas-Setser, New Hope SDA Nighthawks, 2014.
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AY Honors/Card Making/Answer Key

2021-08-15T17:05:57Z

BoisSar:

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Card stock is the most important part of your card - the main part (base) of the card. It is a sturdy kind of paper. Usually you use A5 or A4 size and fold the card stock into the desired size/shape. Card stock has many other uses within card making. For example to punch out shapes from, for hand made embellishments, and for stamped images or messages added 3D to base card, etc.


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Colored pens/markers used to decorate cards. For long-lasting cards/colors try looking for archival quality pens that don't smudge or bleed through. You can used them to outline drawings, color in drawings/stamps, write in captions/messages, etc.


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Your card making essential: a good pair of scissors! You need a sharp pair to cut your card stock and other embellishments. You may also want to use decorative scissors for fancy edges/corners or for creating your own embellishments (decorations).


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These are all the different decorative things you can add to your card. Embellishments come is all sorts of shapes and sizes: stickers, foam shapes, ribbons, different shaped or textured paper, beads, sequins, glitter, etc. etc. etc. Some embellishments come with a sticky back which makes them easy to add to your cards, others you will need to attach yourself. You can use glue, tape, string/ribbon or cut the card to hold the embellishments.


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The main types of rubber stamps: mounted stamps (on wood or plastic blocks), unmounted (or clings), clears (acrylic), foam stamps & digital stamps. All stamps have unique designs in them that can be imprinted on to a card with the use of colored ink (on inkpads). You may choose to color in the stamped imprint.


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Much like felt markers, these are different ways to add color and decorate your card.


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Used with rubber stamps to imprint the stamp designs on to your cards. By running the ink pad along the edge of card stock they can also add a colored edge. They come in various colors, types and sizes.


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Simple die-cutters that can cut out specific shapes. Small hand-held punchers are best for younger card-makers or simple projects. There are also sophisticated systems & industrial sized die-cutters that come with all sorts of patterns and punch out the shapes for larger scaled projects or for more advanced card-makers.


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Glossy card stock is great for backgrounds and accents. Remember, many markers and inks don't adhere to glossy surfaces as well so you need to make sure the ink dries. Glossy card stock is great for punching out shapes or can be "treated" with different methods for unique textures and coloring.


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Corrugated paper is a wavy or crimped heavy craft paper that is usually found in the middle of cardboard. It makes a great background for layering different sheets and decorations on cards. Corrugated paper gives cards an extra dimension/height.


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Mulberry paper and other similar fibrous, delicate handmade papers are ideal for backgrounds and borders. Their unique texture and patterns also make these specialty papers good for layering and accentuating embellishments, lining envelopes or wrapping cards as sleeves. The best way to cut mulberry and similar papers is by TEARING (run damp paint brush along paper using ruler as guide then hand tear) methods, this way the fibers give the edges a softer, more natural, organic look.


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This sheer, translucent (some say transparent) craft paper is a good way to add dimension or layers to cards and gives cards a "cloudy or dreamy" look, most often used in wedding invitations. Some vellum can be printed on, others don't hold ink well so be sure to check before putting into printers or start stamping/writing on them. Vellum works like parchment paper and is great for tracing if you have a light box or for stenciling. Because of its crispy nature, vellum is also used in making cut-outs. Vellum envelopes and card-sleeves give cards a classy finish. Vellum can also be used for a transparent base card with front embellishment placed to hide the inside message.


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scrapbook paper can make quick and easy backgrounds for your cards, and make very attractive cards in a short time.


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Don't throw away your gift wrap! Treat wrapping paper like you would any printed scrapbooking paper. They can be used as borders and backgrounds for your cards. You can also cut out designs or images from the wrapping paper, glue on to card stock and with the help of foam tape you can make unique embellishments, or add decoupage to your cards as they often have repeating patterns.


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Ink pads vary depending on the type of ink you choose. Here is a description on the basic types of ink.


;Dye-based ink: Dye-based ink is a good choice for many kinds of paper. It's permanent and has a watery consistency, meaning it dries quickly. Most are not waterproof, which means you can’t color stamped images with paint, pens or other water-based coloring tools because the ink will run together. Tip: Colored pencils work well. Many dye-based inks are acid-free, but will fade with time and too much exposure to sunlight. Avoid using on mulberry paper, since this type of ink will bleed on very absorbent paper.


;Pigment ink: Pigment ink is thicker and richer and is more like mayonnaise. The colors are bright and vibrant and the ink pads are spongy. They’re fade-resistant. Pigment ink doesn’t soak into paper like a dye-based ink and does the opposite --it dries on top. Because of this, the ink needs more time to dry on regular paper, but the advantage gained is that it produces more vivid colors. Please note that pigment ink will NOT dry on glossy paper. If you really want to stamp pigment ink on glossy paper, you will have to heat-set it with an embossing gun for it to dry. Because pigment ink stays wet for so long, it’s perfect for heat embossing!


;Embossing ink: Embossing inks are used to stamp an image before heat-embossing. They come as inkpads in clear or tinted ink or as embossing pens. The pens make it easy to select details to emboss in a stamped image, add or remove details or to hand draw your own image or message to be heat embossed. eg. modify a stamped message from "my..." to "our..."


;Distress ink: Distress inks are well known for their soft colors and special ''"alterable"'' possibilities. Distress ink stays wet longer than other dye-based ink pads, so you can blend and shadow with water or other inks. Tap some on a paper, then spritz it with water and watch the colors spread.


;Specialty inks: '''StazOn®, Alcohol Inks, Rainbow Pads, Sparkling Ink, Indian Ink, etc. '''


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# basic coloring in using colored pencils or markers
# chalking
# painting in the colors
# filling in image with pigment powder or glitter (use glue first to hold on to paper)


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Monochromatic means using only one color in different tints, shades and tones.


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A method of adding color and texture to your card stock. Use different sponges (cosmetic or sponge daubers), cut and dip into ink then dab sponge on to paper. Sponges will create different patterns and effects.


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Dry embossing or relief embossing, is a paper decorating method that creates raised patterns on the surface (your card stock) you are embossing. These patterns are made by tracing a stencil with a special tool, called a stylus. They will need:


* Light Box
* Stencil
* Masking Tape
* Card Stock
* Stylus


Alternatively place card stock in an embossing folder and run it through a die cut machine.


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In the club we set up a rubber stamp care station for kids to demonstrate cleaning the stamps they used during our card making time.


FOR CLEANING STAMPS, you will need:
a roll of Paper Towels (Viva brand is great because it doesn't leave tiny fibers)
a spray bottle with water
a spray bottle with gentle detergent or dish soap diluted with lots of water
a couple of trays lined with paper towels for drying & catching excess water


FOR STORING INK PADS, you will need to decide what your storage unit of choice will be.
Here are some options:
# deep Kleenex box, cut out a portion of the box so you can stand on its side (lengthwise, like a tower)& easily stack ink pads in.
# old cassette organizer/shelf (thrift stores might still have them!)
# fancy, expensive store bought shelves
# DIY inkpad foam holder -- there are several patterns and designs online, most use foam boards that you cut and glue to make shelves.


Depending on your ink type, you may want to explain that some folks turn their pads upside down so that the ink will stay closest to the top of the sponges and are ready to use right away. PIGMENT and sloppy inks are better left right-side up so they don't drip on to the lids. The key is ALWAYS --


(1) KEEP YOUR PADS LIDS ON;
(2) lay your pads FLAT so the ink doesn't run around and smudge (esp. on rainbow and multiple colored pads).


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THESE ARE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ADHESIVES or "Stick-em on"-ers. There are tons of adhesive options out there that have various effects on your cards dimensions & embellishments.


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lifts embellishments you are sticking on so they "pop up"


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SIMILAR TO FOAM DOTS but can be for bigger items, lifts embellishments you are sticking on so they "pop up"


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Flat adhesive, great for photos and thin or lightweight embellishments. Best method for attaching ribbon to cards.


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great for boarders and for adhering two sheets together


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invisible way to stick embellishments and hold sheets together


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-a decorative way to adhere things to cards because of the varieties on patterns and designs
-can also be used for trimmings and boarders


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See guide to each technique above


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The most enjoyable part of making cards is giving them away, so go bless some people. If you create 5 postcards and send them, you also fulfill one of the practical requirements of the [[AY Honors/Postcards - Advanced|Postcards - Advanced]] honor.


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'''"So, my brothers and sisters, be strong and stead, always enthusiastic about the Lord's work, for you know that nothing you do for the Lord is ever useless."'''
''-- much like an encouragement card or a morale booster''


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'''"Final Greetings: Tychicus, a much loved brother and faithful helper in the Lord's work, will tell you all about how I am getting along."'''
''In biblical days letters were hand delivered and often read to or sometimes recited word for word to the recipient (much like singing tele-grams!). Here is an example of how Paul doesn't even bother to tell his readers how he is and lets his messenger do it! Our modern day cards are usually how folks update each other on the latest happenings in each others lives.''


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'''"Greetings from Paul: This letter is from Paul and Timothy, slaves of Jesus Christ."'''
''This resembles a letterhead on a formal letter where you write the address and position of the writer. We usually don't need to add our titles on to greeting cards unless it is an official or business correspondence. ''


<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
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'''"So, don't be misled, my brothers and sisters... be quick to listen, slow to speak, and slow to get angry."'''
''This passage from Paul gives us advice on how to act or re-act. Not many cards actually give sound advice these days, usually if and when a card gives advice its out of humor.''


<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
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'''"This letter is from Paul, in prison for preaching the Good News about Christ Jesus, and from our brother Timothy."'''
''Paul signs his name and identifies who wrote it at the BEGINNING of his letters & ends with his wishes and prayers for the reader. Traditionally, we sign our cards at the bottom or end of the message & place greetings/blessings/well-wishes at the front.''


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==References== 
contributor: ArniLynne Tupas-Setser, New Hope SDA Nighthawks, 2014.
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AY Honors/Card Making/Answer Key

2021-08-15T17:04:40Z

BoisSar:

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Card stock is the most important part of your card - the main part (base) of the card. It is a sturdy kind of paper. Usually you use A5 or A4 size and fold the card stock into the desired size/shape. Card stock has many other uses within card making. For example to punch out shapes from, for hand made embellishments, and for stamped images or messages added 3D to base card, etc.


<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
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Colored pens/markers used to decorate cards. For long-lasting cards/colors try looking for archival quality pens that don't smudge or bleed through. You can used them to outline drawings, color in drawings/stamps, write in captions/messages, etc.


<noinclude></translate></noinclude>
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Your card making essential: a good pair of scissors! You need a sharp pair to cut your card stock and other embellishments. You may also want to use decorative scissors for fancy edges/corners or for creating your own embellishments (decorations).


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These are all the different decorative things you can add to your card. Embellishments come is all sorts of shapes and sizes: stickers, foam shapes, ribbons, different shaped or textured paper, beads, sequins, glitter, etc. etc. etc. Some embellishments come with a sticky back which makes them easy to add to your cards, others you will need to attach yourself. You can use glue, tape, string/ribbon or cut the card to hold the embellishments.


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The main types of rubber stamps: mounted stamps (on wood or plastic blocks), unmounted (or clings), clears (acrylic), foam stamps & digital stamps. All stamps have unique designs in them that can be imprinted on to a card with the use of colored ink (on inkpads). You may choose to color in the stamped imprint.


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Much like felt markers, these are different ways to add color and decorate your card.


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Used with rubber stamps to imprint the stamp designs on to your cards. By running the ink pad along the edge of card stock they can also add a colored edge. They come in various colors, types and sizes.


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Simple die-cutters that can cut out specific shapes. Small hand-held punchers are best for younger card-makers or simple projects. There are also sophisticated systems & industrial sized die-cutters that come with all sorts of patterns and punch out the shapes for larger scaled projects or for more advanced card-makers.


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Glossy card stock is great for backgrounds and accents. Remember, many markers and inks don't adhere to glossy surfaces as well so you need to make sure the ink dries. Glossy card stock is great for punching out shapes or can be "treated" with different methods for unique textures and coloring.


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Corrugated paper is a wavy or crimped heavy craft paper that is usually found in the middle of cardboard. It makes a great background for layering different sheets and decorations on cards. Corrugated paper gives cards an extra dimension/height.


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Mulberry paper and other similar fibrous, delicate handmade papers are ideal for backgrounds and boarders. Their unique texture and patterns also make these specialty papers good for layering and accentuating embellishments, lining envelopes or wrapping cards as sleeves. The best way to cut mulberry and similar papers is by TEARING (run damp paint brush along paper using ruler as guide then hand tear) methods, this way the fibers give the edges a softer, more natural, organic look.


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This sheer, translucent (some say transparent) craft paper is a good way to add dimension or layers to cards and gives cards a "cloudy or dreamy" look, most often used in wedding invitations. Some vellum can be printed on, others don't hold ink well so be sure to check before putting into printers or start stamping/writing on them. Vellum works like parchment paper and is great for tracing if you have a light box or for stenciling. Because of its crispy nature, vellum is also used in making cut-outs. Vellum envelopes and card-sleeves give cards a classy finish. Vellum can also be used for a transparent base card with front embellishment placed to hide the inside message.


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scrapbook paper can make quick and easy backgrounds for your cards, and make very attractive cards in a short time.


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Don't throw away your gift wrap! Treat wrapping paper like you would any printed scrapbooking paper. They can be used as borders and backgrounds for your cards. You can also cut out designs or images from the wrapping paper, glue on to card stock and with the help of foam tape you can make unique embellishments, or add decoupage to your cards as they often have repeating patterns.


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Ink pads vary depending on the type of ink you choose. Here is a description on the basic types of ink.


;Dye-based ink: Dye-based ink is a good choice for many kinds of paper. It's permanent and has a watery consistency, meaning it dries quickly. Most are not waterproof, which means you can’t color stamped images with paint, pens or other water-based coloring tools because the ink will run together. Tip: Colored pencils work well. Many dye-based inks are acid-free, but will fade with time and too much exposure to sunlight. Avoid using on mulberry paper, since this type of ink will bleed on very absorbent paper.


;Pigment ink: Pigment ink is thicker and richer and is more like mayonnaise. The colors are bright and vibrant and the ink pads are spongy. They’re fade-resistant. Pigment ink doesn’t soak into paper like a dye-based ink and does the opposite --it dries on top. Because of this, the ink needs more time to dry on regular paper, but the advantage gained is that it produces more vivid colors. Please note that pigment ink will NOT dry on glossy paper. If you really want to stamp pigment ink on glossy paper, you will have to heat-set it with an embossing gun for it to dry. Because pigment ink stays wet for so long, it’s perfect for heat embossing!


;Embossing ink: Embossing inks are used to stamp an image before heat-embossing. They come as inkpads in clear or tinted ink or as embossing pens. The pens make it easy to select details to emboss in a stamped image, add or remove details or to hand draw your own image or message to be heat embossed. eg. modify a stamped message from "my..." to "our..."


;Distress ink: Distress inks are well known for their soft colors and special ''"alterable"'' possibilities. Distress ink stays wet longer than other dye-based ink pads, so you can blend and shadow with water or other inks. Tap some on a paper, then spritz it with water and watch the colors spread.


;Specialty inks: '''StazOn®, Alcohol Inks, Rainbow Pads, Sparkling Ink, Indian Ink, etc. '''


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# basic coloring in using colored pencils or markers
# chalking
# painting in the colors
# filling in image with pigment powder or glitter (use glue first to hold on to paper)


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Monochromatic means using only one color in different tints, shades and tones.


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A method of adding color and texture to your card stock. Use different sponges (cosmetic or sponge daubers), cut and dip into ink then dab sponge on to paper. Sponges will create different patterns and effects.


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Dry embossing or relief embossing, is a paper decorating method that creates raised patterns on the surface (your card stock) you are embossing. These patterns are made by tracing a stencil with a special tool, called a stylus. They will need:


* Light Box
* Stencil
* Masking Tape
* Card Stock
* Stylus


Alternatively place card stock in an embossing folder and run it through a die cut machine.


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In the club we set up a rubber stamp care station for kids to demonstrate cleaning the stamps they used during our card making time.


FOR CLEANING STAMPS, you will need:
a roll of Paper Towels (Viva brand is great because it doesn't leave tiny fibers)
a spray bottle with water
a spray bottle with gentle detergent or dish soap diluted with lots of water
a couple of trays lined with paper towels for drying & catching excess water


FOR STORING INK PADS, you will need to decide what your storage unit of choice will be.
Here are some options:
# deep Kleenex box, cut out a portion of the box so you can stand on its side (lengthwise, like a tower)& easily stack ink pads in.
# old cassette organizer/shelf (thrift stores might still have them!)
# fancy, expensive store bought shelves
# DIY inkpad foam holder -- there are several patterns and designs online, most use foam boards that you cut and glue to make shelves.


Depending on your ink type, you may want to explain that some folks turn their pads upside down so that the ink will stay closest to the top of the sponges and are ready to use right away. PIGMENT and sloppy inks are better left right-side up so they don't drip on to the lids. The key is ALWAYS --


(1) KEEP YOUR PADS LIDS ON;
(2) lay your pads FLAT so the ink doesn't run around and smudge (esp. on rainbow and multiple colored pads).


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THESE ARE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ADHESIVES or "Stick-em on"-ers. There are tons of adhesive options out there that have various effects on your cards dimensions & embellishments.


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lifts embellishments you are sticking on so they "pop up"


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SIMILAR TO FOAM DOTS but can be for bigger items, lifts embellishments you are sticking on so they "pop up"


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Flat adhesive, great for photos and thin or lightweight embellishments. Best method for attaching ribbon to cards.


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great for boarders and for adhering two sheets together


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invisible way to stick embellishments and hold sheets together


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-a decorative way to adhere things to cards because of the varieties on patterns and designs
-can also be used for trimmings and boarders


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See guide to each technique above


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The most enjoyable part of making cards is giving them away, so go bless some people. If you create 5 postcards and send them, you also fulfill one of the practical requirements of the [[AY Honors/Postcards - Advanced|Postcards - Advanced]] honor.


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'''"So, my brothers and sisters, be strong and stead, always enthusiastic about the Lord's work, for you know that nothing you do for the Lord is ever useless."'''
''-- much like an encouragement card or a morale booster''


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'''"Final Greetings: Tychicus, a much loved brother and faithful helper in the Lord's work, will tell you all about how I am getting along."'''
''In biblical days letters were hand delivered and often read to or sometimes recited word for word to the recipient (much like singing tele-grams!). Here is an example of how Paul doesn't even bother to tell his readers how he is and lets his messenger do it! Our modern day cards are usually how folks update each other on the latest happenings in each others lives.''


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'''"Greetings from Paul: This letter is from Paul and Timothy, slaves of Jesus Christ."'''
''This resembles a letterhead on a formal letter where you write the address and position of the writer. We usually don't need to add our titles on to greeting cards unless it is an official or business correspondence. ''


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'''"So, don't be misled, my brothers and sisters... be quick to listen, slow to speak, and slow to get angry."'''
''This passage from Paul gives us advice on how to act or re-act. Not many cards actually give sound advice these days, usually if and when a card gives advice its out of humor.''


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'''"This letter is from Paul, in prison for preaching the Good News about Christ Jesus, and from our brother Timothy."'''
''Paul signs his name and identifies who wrote it at the BEGINNING of his letters & ends with his wishes and prayers for the reader. Traditionally, we sign our cards at the bottom or end of the message & place greetings/blessings/well-wishes at the front.''


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==References== 
contributor: ArniLynne Tupas-Setser, New Hope SDA Nighthawks, 2014.
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AY Honors/Soap Craft/Answer Key

2021-08-01T15:58:41Z

BoisSar:

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Ingredients used to make soap are oil, alkali, glycerin, perfumes, dyes

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* A [[W:soap|soap]] is a natural fatty substance (called fatty acids) which has been reacted with lye (sodium hydroxide).
* A [[W:detergent|detergent]] is any type of cleaner which does not contain a soap as its main ingredient.

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Soap is an excellent cleanser because of its ability to act as an emulsifier.

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A soap like material found in clay cylinders during the excavation of ancient Babylon is evident that soap making was known as early as 2800B.C. Soap got it name according to an ancient Roman legend, from Mount Sapo where animals were sacrificed.


* '''Early History'''
: The earliest known use of a natural soap-like substance was the powder of the Reeta (Sapindus) nut, which was used by Indians since antiquity. Hindus in India were obliged to bathe at least once a day, every morning, in accordance with Ayurveda. Evidence of manufactured soap use are Babylonian clay cylinders dating from 2800 BC containing a soap-like substance. A formula for soap consisting of water, alkali and cassia oil was written on a Babylonian clay tablet around 2200 BC.


: The Ebers papyrus (Egypt, 1550 BC) indicates that ancient Egyptians bathed regularly and combined animal and vegetable oils with alkaline salts to create a soap-like substance. Egyptian documents mention that a soap-like substance was used in the preparation of wool for weaving.


* '''Roman History'''
: It had been reported that a factory producing soap-like substances was found in the ruins of Pompeii (79 AD). However, this has proven to be a misinterpretation of the survival of some soapy mineral substance, probably soapstone at the Fullonica where it was used for dressing recently cleansed textiles. Unfortunately this error has been repeated widely and can be found in otherwise reputable texts on soap history. The ancient Romans were generally ignorant of soap's detergent properties, and made use of the strigil to scrape dirt and sweat from the body. The word "soap" (Latin sapo) appears first in a European language in Pliny the Elder's Historia Naturalis, which discusses the manufacture of soap from tallow and ashes, but the only use he mentions for it is as a pomade for hair; he mentions rather disapprovingly that among the Gauls and Germans men are likelier to use it than women.


: A story encountered in some places claims that soap takes its name from a supposed "Mount Sapo" where ancient Romans sacrificed animals. Rain would send a mix of animal tallow and wood ash down the mountain and into the clay soil on the banks of the Tiber. Eventually, women noticed that it was easier to clean clothes with this "soap". The location of Mount Sapo is unknown, as is the source of the "ancient Roman legend" to which this tale is typically credited. In fact, the Latin word sapo simply means "soap"; it was borrowed from a Celtic or Germanic language, and is cognate with Latin sebum, "tallow", which appears in Pliny the Elder's account. Roman animal sacrifices usually burned only the bones and inedible entrails of the sacrificed animals; edible meat and fat from the sacrifices were taken by the humans rather than the gods. Animal sacrifices in the ancient world would not have included enough fat to make much soap. The legend about Mount Sapo is probably apocryphal.


* '''Muslim History'''
: True soaps made from vegetable oils (such as olive oil), aromatic oils (such as thyme oil) and Lye (al-Soda al-Kawia) were first produced by Muslim chemists in the medieval Islamic world. The formula for soap used since then hasn't changed. From the beginning of the 7th century, soap was produced in Nablus (West Bank, Palestine), Kufa (Iraq) and Basra (Iraq). Soaps, as we know them today, are descendants of historical Arabian Soaps. Arabian Soap was perfumed and colored, some of the soaps were liquid and others were hard. They also had special soap for shaving. It was sold for 3 Dirhams (0.3 Dinars) a piece in 981 AD. The Persian chemist Al-Razi wrote a manuscript on recipes for true soap. A recently discovered manuscript from the 13th century details more recipes for soap making; e.g. take some sesame oil, a sprinkle of potash, alkali and some lime, mix them all together and boil. When cooked, they are poured into molds and left to set, leaving hard soap.


: In semi-modern times soap was made by mixing animal fats with lye. Because of the caustic lye, this was a dangerous procedure (perhaps more dangerous than any present-day home activities) which could result in serious chemical burns or even blindness. Before commercially-produced lye (sodium hydroxide) was commonplace, potash, potassium hydroxide, was produced at home for soap making from the ashes of a hardwood fire.

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Seven forms of soap are medical soap, shaving soap, liquid soap, technical soap, toilet soap, complexion soap, and hand soap.

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Scum is the substance which results from the reaction of the hardness mineral in water with common household soaps. Evident as a bath tub ring or on shower doors.

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Here are some pathfinder soap carvings for examples.
<gallery widths=250px perrow="2">
Image:Soap carved cat.jpg
Image:Soap carved tulip.jpg
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You can buy multipacks of soap at reasonable prices at large "warehouse" type stores such as Costco or Sam's Club, or at large retailers such as Target or Walmart. Ivory soap works pretty well for this, though you may wish to check that none of your Pathfinders are allergic to it before you buy it.


Start by tracing the design onto the bar of soap, etching the lines lightly into the soap with a pointed stick or the tip of a knife. Instruct your Pathfinders on knife safety before handing out the knives:
# Do not draw the knife towards yourself - cut away from your body.
# Pick up a knife by its handle
# Be aware that folding knives can close when under pressure.
# Offer a knife's ''handle'' to another person when handing it to another person.


Once the design is etched into the soap, begin removing the soap that does not belong there. Do not remove huge chunks all at once or the soap may break. You can also use the knife to drill holes in the soap.

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Soap can be decorated by attaching ribbons with pins. You can also use pins to attach photos (crop them first), pictures cut from magazines, buttons, doilies, etc. Be creative! Pay attention to the colors of the materials you attach to the soap compared to the color of the soap itself. Soap need not be carved before decorating, but it may help to cut any lettering (such as the brand's logo) off before attaching pictures.


''If you have pictures to contribute, we'd love to add them.''

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Reuse the shavings left over from carving or use soap flakes. Add a little water and whip in a mixing bowl using either a whisk or an electric beater. When you have plenty of soap whipped up, spoon it into bowls and add food coloring (a different color for each bowl). Mix the coloring in until it is even.


Once you have all the colors you need, paint it onto a "canvas" with a regular artist's paintbrush. The canvas can be as simple as a paper plate or piece of construction paper.


''If you have pictures to contribute, we'd love to add them.''

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==References== 
*

[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/noindex|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
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AY Honors/Sculpturing/Answer Key

2021-08-01T15:50:56Z

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You will need something to sculpt with: clay, playdoh, or sculpting medium clay.
You will also need some tools: pick, knifes, and depending on the material, things like sanding paper etc.
To finish the sculpture you might want to seal or paint it.
You should plan to clean up after your sculpturing: rag, broom and dustpan etc.


This fun video shows 10 top tools and what they are used for:


{{#widget:YouTube|id=Q6ri4g6dtTs}}


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You can use clay, playdoh, or sculpting medium clay.


Here's a great video demonstration:


{{#widget:YouTube|id=ocAc--CQdPw}}


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The easiest type is a thumb in a good job thumbs up position.
A foot is not too tough either. Both can be modeled lifesize or otherwise. Why not do a baby foot?


Here's a great explanation from a teacher who teaches sculpting:
{{#widget:YouTube|id=OMh-8OWageE}}


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Use an easy clay material to get the general shape up and use tools to do facial details and hair.
A great video that shows how an expert sculpts a head is here:


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AY Honors/Plastics/Answer Key

2021-08-01T15:41:02Z

BoisSar:

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* Plastic resin
* Catalyst
* Eye dropper (for adding the catalyst)
* Plastic disposable cup
* Craft stick (for stirring)
* A plastic mold
* An embeddable object
* Newspapers
* Goggles, gloves, and a smock (or old clothes)
* Mold release


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Be careful not to scratch your molds, as even a small scratch will be transferred to the cast. Once the resin has cured and the cast has been popped out, the mold can simply be wiped clean. You can also use acetone for cleaning up, but be forewarned - acetone is flammable and (like plastic casting in general) should only be used in a well-ventilated area, well away from an open flame (such as a water heater, furnace, pilot light, or gas stove).


Store your molds in a separate container by themselves when not in use. Do not store them with other objects such as tools, as these can easily scratch the molds.


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*Go over these safety rules with your Pathfinders ''before'' opening any chemicals.
*Wear protective gear, including safety goggles, gloves, and an apron or smock.
*Read and heed all manufacturer warnings.
**Know what to do if the chemicals come into contact with a person (skin, eyes, or if ingested) ''before'' opening them.
*Use only in a well-ventilated area, preferably outside.
*Use only under adult supervision
*Do not pour resin down a drain. It may cause an expensive clog.


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Pour the correct volume of resin into a plastic cup. Do not use a waxed paper cup for this, as the wax will ruin the resin. Then use an eye dropper to add the correct amount of catalyst. Read the directions to see how much catalyst you need for the amount of resin you are using. ''Thoroughly'' mix the resin and the catalyst with a craft stick by using a ''cutting'' motion - this will minimize the introduction of air bubbles into the resin (which you will want to avoid as much as possible).


Resin can be mixed with either pigments or dyes made for that purpose. Pigments will create opaque plastic, and dyes will create transparent plastic. Only use dyes and pigments formulated for the exact type of resin you are using. Opaque plastic is generally limited to the base layer only - otherwise, the embedded object will obviously not be seen.


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The catalyst causes the liquid resin to undergo polymerization.


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The resin that comes into contact with the mold will cure to a hard, crystal clear finish. However, the exposed surface (i.e., the top of the mold) may not. The last layer of resin should be mixed with a surface hardening agent so that it will cure completely.
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Pigments are used to color the plastic to add interest to the casting.


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Polymerization is a chemical reaction in which monomers are assembled to form long chains or three-dimensional networks. In short, this is the chemical process that converts the liquid resin into the solid plastic.


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The first step is to choose the nature items to be embedded. Popular choices include dead insects, leaves, flowers, rocks, seeds, nuts, and shells. Once the items have been selected, it is time to prepare a work area.


Cover the work surface with newspapers or plastic bags. You can also use an old pizza box or a large piece of cardboard as a work surface. Once this has been done, put on your protective gear (goggles, apron, and gloves).


Fill your mold with water, and then dump the water into a measuring cup. This will tell you exactly how much resin you will need, though you will want to divide that up to form multiple layers. For example, if your mold has a volume of six ounces and you want to pour two layers, you will need to mix three ounces in the first batch, and three more in the second.


Carefully dry the mold and examine it for imperfections (such as scratches). Any imperfections in the mold will be transferred to the cast item. If you find an imperfection, your only options are to either live with them, or use a different mold. Once you are satisfied with the mold, spray it with mold release. Some people do not use mold release in order to save time, or money, but this is a false economy. Mold release greatly increases the number of times you can reuse the mold, and the time it takes to spray it into the mold is a tiny fraction of the amount of time it will take you to get the casting out of the mold once it cures. Hence, we highly recommend using mold release.


Mix the resin in accordance with the general instructions given in requirement 4, but be sure to read the mixing instructions that came with the resin for specifics.


For a two layer casting, fill the mold with resin to the half way point. Then let the resin cure for about 25 minutes so that it forms a gel. You may probe the resin with a craft stick to make sure it's the right consistency, but ''do not'' use your finger for this. Doing so risks spoiling the resin.


After the first layer has gelled, carefully place the embeddable object (or objects) on the surface of the resin. You may wish to do this with tweezers. Then mix a second batch of resin, ''noting the instructions on the container''. The second (and successive batches) of resin usually has a different ratio of resin to catalyst. Once it is properly mixed, pour it over the embedded object. Place the mold some place where it will be out of the way for the next 24 hours and let it cure for at least that amount of time. After 24 hours, you should be able to pop the cast out of the mold (you ''did'' remember to use mold release, didn't you?).


Place a very fine grade sand paper on a flat surface (a piece of plate glass works wonderfully), and then sand any rough spots on the cast item by gently rubbing it over the sand paper. Then buff it with a soft cloth.


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These embeddables do not need to be nature items. You can cast any small item you like. Many people cast coins or small toys. Follow the instructions given in requirement 7.


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==References== 
*http://fun.familyeducation.com/crafts/handicrafts/47912.html
*http://www.diynetwork.com/diy/ca_crafts_projects/article/0,2041,DIY_13721_2273425,00.html
*http://www.craftbits.com/viewProject.do?projectID=2056
*http://www.delviesplastics.com/mm5/merchant.mvc?Screen=CTGY&Store_Code=DPI&Category_Code=Casting_Resin
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AY Honors/Photography/Answer Key

2021-08-01T15:12:33Z

BoisSar:

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===Camera Construction=== 
[[Image:Pinhole-camera.svg|thumb|right|200px|Principle of a pinhole camera. Light rays from an object pass through a small hole to form an image.]]


A [[W:Pinhole_camera|pinhole camera]] is a camera without a conventional glass lens. An extremely small hole in a very thin material can focus light by limiting all rays from a scene through a single point. To produce a reasonably clear image, the aperture has to be a small pinhole on the order of 0.5 mm (0.02 inches) or less. The shutter of a pinhole camera usually consists of a hand operated flap of some light-proof material to cover and uncover the pinhole. Pinhole cameras require much longer exposure times than conventional cameras because of the small aperture; typical exposure times can range from 5 seconds to hours or days.


Surprise! A camera is nothing more than:
* an optical element, usually the lens, but here, the pinhole.
* a chemical element, or, the film.
* a mechanical element, usually the camera body.


In our pinhole camera, light from various points of the tree travels through the tiny pinhole and reaches the back of our pinhole camera where the image of the tree is upside down. The trick is to correctly expose the film which is at the back of the camera.

===Camera Lens=== 
[[Image:Lens Nikkor 18-70mm.jpg|thumb|left|75px|Camera Lens]]
A [[W:Camera_lens|camera lens]] usually has an aperture adjustment mechanism to control the amount of light that may pass. It also has a shutter, to control the length of time during which light may pass through the lens.
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===Light on Film=== 
[[Image:Shutter speed in Greenwich.jpg|thumb|400px|Effect of more light ''(read: longer exposure)'' on film]]
Photographic film is a sheet of plastic which is coated with an emulsion containing light-sensitive silver halide salts with variable crystal sizes that determine the sensitivity and resolution of the film. When the emulsion (in this ''film'') is subjected to sufficient exposure to light it forms an invisible image.


In black-and-white photographic film there is usually one layer of silver salts. When the exposed grains are developed, the silver salts are converted to metallic silver, which block light and appear as the black part of the film negative.


Color film uses at least three layers. Dyes added to the silver salts make the crystals sensitive to different colors. Typically the blue-sensitive layer is on top, followed by the green and red layers. During development, the silver salts are converted to metallic silver, as with black and white film. The by-products of this reaction form colored dyes. The silver is converted back to silver salts in the bleach step of development. It is removed from the film in the fix step. Some films, like Kodacolor II, have as many as 12 emulsion layers, with upwards of 20 different chemicals in each layer.

===Developers=== 
In film developing, [[W:Photographic_developer|photographic developer]] (or just developer) is a chemical that makes the [[W:Latent_image|latent image]] on the film (or print) visible. It does this by reducing the silver halides that have been exposed to light to metals of elemental silver in the gelatine matrix. As a generalisation, the longer a developer is allowed to work, the greater the degree of reduction of the silver halide crystals to silver and therefore the darker the image.


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'''[[W:Film speed|Film speed]]''' is the measure of a photographic film's sensitivity to light. Stock with lower sensitivity (lower ISO speed rating) requires a longer exposure and is thus called a slow film, while stock with higher sensitivity (higher ISO speed rating) can shoot the same scene with a shorter exposure and is called a fast film.

===ISO film speed scales=== 
The standard known as '''ISO 5800:1987''' from the
[[W:International Organization for Standardization|International Organization for Standardization (ISO)]] defines both a linear scale and a logarithmic scale for measuring film speed.


In the ISO linear scale, which corresponds to the older '''[[W:American Standards Association|ASA]]''' scale, doubling the speed of a film (that is, halving the amount of light that is necessary to expose the film) implies doubling the numeric value that designates the film speed. In the ISO logarithmic scale, which corresponds to the older '''[[W:DIN|DIN]]''' scale, doubling the speed of a film implies adding 3° to the numeric value that designates the film speed. For example, a film rated ISO 200/24° is twice as sensitive as a film rated ISO 100/21°.


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[[Image:Shutter speed waterfall.gif|thumb|right|300px|Example of photos taken at different shutter speeds]]
'''[[W:Shutter speed|Shutter speed]]''' is the time for which the shutter is held open during the taking of a photograph to allow light to reach the film or image sensor (in a digital camera).


Combined with adjusting of the '''[[W:aperture|lens aperture]]''', the shutter speed regulates how much light the camera will record. For a given exposure, a fast shutter speed demands a larger aperture to avoid under-exposure, just as a slow shutter speed is offset by a very small aperture to avoid over-exposure. Long shutter speeds are often used in low light conditions, such as at night.


Shutter speed is measured in seconds. A typical shutter speed for photographs taken in sunlight is 1/125th of a second. In addition to its effect on exposure, shutter speed changes the way movement appears in the picture. Very short shutter speeds are used to freeze fast-moving subjects, for example at sporting events. Very long shutter speeds are used to intentionally blur a moving subject for artistic effect.


'''[[W:Film speed|Film speed]]''' is the measure of a photographic film's sensitivity to light. Stock with lower sensitivity (lower ISO speed rating) requires a longer exposure and is thus called a slow film, while stock with higher sensitivity (higher ISO speed rating) can shoot the same scene with a shorter exposure and is called a fast film.


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'''Photography''' {{IPA|}} [fә'tɑgrәfi:],[foʊ'tɑgrәfi:]
is the process of recording pictures by means of capturing light on a light-sensitive medium, such as a film or sensor. Light patterns reflected or emitted from objects expose a sensitive chemical or electronic medium during a timed exposure, usually through a photographic lens in a device known as a camera that also stores the resulting information chemically or electronically.


The word comes from the Greek words φως ''phos'' ("light"), and γραφίς ''graphis'' ("stylus", "paintbrush") or γραφή ''graphê'' ("representation by means of lines" or "drawing"), together meaning "drawing with light." Traditionally, the product of photography has been called a ''photograph'', commonly shortened to ''photo''.


Photography gained the interest of many scientists and artists from its inception. Scientists have used photography to record and study movements, such as [[W:Eadweard Muybridge|Eadweard Muybridge]]'s study of human and animal locomotion in 1887. Artists are equally interested by these aspects but also try to explore avenues other than the photo-mechanical representation of reality, such as the [[W:pictorialist|pictorialist]] movement. Military, police and security forces use photography for surveillance, recognition and data storage. Photography is used to preserve memories of favorites and as a source of entertainment.


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Framing & Direction of Lighting


When we use our eyes, we see the world in three dimensions. The biggest reason for this is because we have two eyes about 1 1/2" apart that give us "two photos" that our brain then interprets as being three-dimensional--big objects are closer than small objects.


However, cameras only have one "eye", the lens, so we have to intentionally take pictures that are "extra" 3-dimensional. One way we can do this by framing.


Framing uses some element in the photograph to act as a foreground or middle-distance frame which overlaps or highlights the main subject of your photo.


For example, if you're taking a picture of rolling hills, give your picture "depth" by putting a tree or fence post that is closer to you on the right or left hand side of the photograph.


Other examples of frames include: a tree branch, rocks on a seashore, a friend or an archway.


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Have you ever gotten pictures developed and all you see is a "blur" that was supposed to be a family member? Maybe you've taken a picture through the window of a car while its been moving. This is called camera blur and is most often caused when you're using a "fancy" SLR camera where the exposure setting is 1/125th of a second or slower. However, it can also happen when you don't practice good "camera posture" when composing your photograph.


When you're taking pictures, is very important that the camera doesn't wiggle as you take the picture! Some helpful hints for keeping this from happening are:
* Use both hands to steady the camera. One-handed picture taking is hazardous to your photographic health!
* If you're using a fancy SLR camera, be sure your exposure time is set equal to or greater than your film speed (ex. If you're using 200 speed film, have it set to 1/250, 1/500, or 1/1000). Otherwise use a table, wall or something else steady to steady yourself as you take the photo.
*Most point-and-shoot cameras have this film/exposure time ratio "built-in" to their cameras.**
* The best way to hold a camera in a comfortable position but rigidly is to form an imaginary tripod with the camera pressed against your forehead and your elbows against your body. Take a breath, partially exhale, and gently press the shutter button.
* Be careful not to get any of your fingers or the camera cord in front of the flash or the lens!!


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Direction of lighting,
Quality of Lighting, & Rule of Thirds
Quiz question (not really. . .) Should the sun be behind the subject you're photographing, beside the subject, or shining on the subject?


People used to think that you could only take good pictures if the sun was behind the photographer (YOU!) shining on the subject they were taking a picture. But that's not true.


For instance, if you want to take a sunset picture and want your framing subject (such as a person walking down the beach) to be a silhouette, the sun should be behind him, shining toward you (back lighting).


'''Lighting:'''


'''''Front lighting''''' is best when you want to see the details, like if you're taking a close-up of someone's face. A downfall is, that if the lights too bright, such as in the middle of the day, there might be "glare" in your subject.


'''''Side lighting''''' is great for bringing out shapes and textures, such as a rocky mountain cliff or tree bark.
These two photos are from Mono Lake In California. Notice how different the same rocks look depending on where the light is coming from?


'''''Back lighting''''' is lighting from behind the subject, tends to hide the subject, forming a silhouette. Some good places to use back lighting are a camporee flagpole at sunset, a cow/horse grazing at sunset, or a playground after everyone has gone home for the evening.


'''Quality of Lighting - Time of Day, shading, etc.'''


*The best light conditions are 1 1/2 hours before sunset or the first hour after sunrise. The reason is that the light isn't SO BRIGHT that it washes out the colors in your picture, but at the same time the shadows are long (which makes side lighting pictures look extra special). Also, the sunset or sunrise gives off a kind of "pink" or "orange" light, which makes many nature pictures look very friendly & special. If you want to know when sunrise and sunset are going to be, check out www.adventist.org's sunset calendar!
*Be careful of evening shadows when photographing people. long shadows on faces hide features and expressions!
*Pictures taken during the middle of the day will be "stark" with hard lines and minimal shadows. Buildings & some landscapes such as mountains look especially regal or majestic during the middle of the day. Just remember that if you take a picture during the middle of the day, shade the top of the lens of your camera by placing one of your hands or a piece of paper horizontal about 2" above the lens to form a "shade for the lens. This will keep pink & blue "sparks" from showing up on your photos.
*When there is no sunshine (on a rainy day) don't give up on taking pictures! Zoom in close on flowers and other colorful objects. The color will be extra deep since its not being "washed out" by the sun. Fog which often accompanies soft rain also makes a very nice soft hazy look. Just be sure to protect you lens from specks of rain!


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[[Image:Flickr cc runner wisconsin u.jpg|thumb|250px|Blurred background with the subject in focus]]
This technique moves the camera at the same speed of your subject while the picture is being taken. For example, if you are taking a picture of a runner going from your left to your right, you would 'pan' or move your camera with the runner (subject) in your viewfinder and take the picture. This causes the background of your picture to blur because of the camera movement, however, since your subject is moving at the same speed as your camera, your subject will be in focus.
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<gallery>
Image:Meraner Berge.jpg|A photo divided into thirds
Image:PicoParana2006-3.jpg|Sky taking top two-thirds
Image:PicoParana2006-2.jpg|Sky taking top one-third
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A Picture looks best when you imagine a tic-tac-toe board on top of your picture you're going to take. Remember that we're wanting a photo to look 3 dimensional! Part of that is arranging it in combination with "Framing" and "Leading Lines" techniques, but putting objects in "3rds" on the photo.

For example: In a mountain scene the landscape in the bottom screen--maybe even a tree or rock to help it look "more 3-D"-- the mountains in the middle 3rd, and the sky in the top third.


Another Illustration: If you're taking a picture of a landscape with puffy clouds, take one picture where 2/3 of the picture is composed of the clouds and the landscape fills the bottom 1/3. Then try with 1/3 clouds and 2/3 landscape. Notice how different this same landscape looks with the "3rds" changed from top to bottom!


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Subjects look different depending on where you are in relation to them when you take the picture.


You'll need three photos for this requirement, though they don't have to be of the same object. A High-angle, Mid-angle, and Low-angle photograph.


'''''High angle means:''''' looking down on your subject


'''''Mid-angle means:''''' looking at your subject straight on.


'''''Low-angle means:''''' looking up at your subject


For this requirement, take a subject, such as some tall straight trees, and take a picture looking straight at them, then another one by laying on the ground looking up through the trees. Did the angle make a difference?


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<gallery>
Image:CaiMonVillage.jpg|Example of not level horizon
Image:CaiMonVillage-autolevel.jpg|Example of level horizon
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Have you ever taken a picture of a beautiful flower or some animals but when the photo came back, you had to explain to friends "that dot is a pretty rose," and "that dot over there is a buffalo."?


Filling the frame is all about making your subject (what you're taking a picture of) fill up most of the picture frame. This means standing closer to the subject than you're ordinarily used to doing and making sure there's not a lot of "green space" around your subject.


'''Some ideas for Pathfinders:'''
*Take a picture of your whole youth group. Be sure there are some standing and some standing/sitting in front of them. Then, get close enough so that there is almost NO "background green space" around them. You'll be impressed with how nice it is to have a photo that shows the expressions on everybody's face.


*Take a picture of your best friend while they're eating at a campout or lockin. Don't try to take a picture of the whole room, but zoom in on their upper body and the top of the table with the plate of food. You'll both laugh when you see the photo that shows how shocked your friend was at your "surprise" picture.


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Leading lines are anything in a photograph that will help lead your eyes towards the main subject. For example, do you want people eyes to travel "down the road into the sunset, just like the bus is doing? Or, do you want people to see the big cafeteria on the hill where you and your fellow pathfinders ate all weekend?


Leading Lines also help your photograph's "depth." If your eyes are able to wander into the picture, then your brain will think the picture looks more real, like the real 3-D world we live in.


'''Ideas for pathfinders:'''


* Roads: take a picture of a windy road that leads to nowwhere; The road that leads to camporee or the road into the campsite you're staying at this weekend may also be a good leading line.
* Trails
* Fence Posts / Fence lines
* Tall buildings or tall trees. Take pictures straight up, and use those tall lines to guide your eyes to a Mountain peak, or to the sun / moon shining overhead.


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*The best light conditions are 1 1/2 hours before sunset or the first hour after sunrise. The reason is that the light isn't SO BRIGHT that it washes out the colors in your picture, but at the same time the shadows are long (which makes side lighting pictures look extra special). Also, the sunset or sunrise gives off a kind of "pink" or "orange" light, which makes many nature pictures look very friendly & special. If you want to know when sunrise and sunset are going to be, check out www.adventist.org's sunset calendar!
*Be careful of evening shadows when photographing people. long shadows on faces hide features and expressions!
*Pictures taken during the middle of the day will be "stark" with hard lines and minimal shadows. Buildings & some landscapes such as mountains look especially regal or majestic during the middle of the day. Just remember that if you take a picture during the middle of the day, shade the top of the lens of your camera by placing one of your hands or a piece of paper horizontal about 2" above the lens to form a "shade for the lens. This will keep pink & blue "sparks" from showing up on your photos.
*When there is no sunshine (on a rainy day) don't give up on taking pictures! Zoom in close on flowers and other colorful objects. The color will be extra deep since its not being "washed out" by the sun. Fog which often accompanies soft rain also makes a very nice soft hazy look. Just be sure to protect you lens from specks of rain!


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<gallery>
Image:Underexposed.png|Example of Underexposed photo
Image:Sizilien Autobahn A29DIR.jpg|Example of Overexposed photo
Image:798px-Sizilien Autobahn A29DIR-autofixed.jpg|Autofixed photo
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Most flashes should be used no closer to a subject than 6 feet. and more than 20 feet away. Any closer and it will "wash out" your subject, (depending on flash), and any farther away, the light won't even reach. For example: Have you ever seen people use a flash at a football game, or in a large stadium in hopes of getting photos of the people on the field? The flash won't help because its too far away!


Don't try to use a flash when there is a reflective object directly in front of the lens. For example, a mirror or window behind your friends, or the fishtank glass between you and that shark at SeaWorld. Move off to the side diagonally a little, so that the light, when it flashes off the reflective object, won't bounce directly back to your lens, but instead will bounce into empty space beside you!


Use the flash to fill in shadows. If your subject has side-lighting erasing the features on its face that you want to capture on film, use the flash to erase the shadows. BE SURE you're far enough away, or the whole picture will be blotted out!


'''Some ideas for Pathfinders:'''


* Try using a flash when your friends are in a dark cave or room. Arrange them 6 feet away from your camera, then take 2 pictures. One with a flash and one without. Notice the difference. Now take one with your friend(s) only 3 feet away. What happened?


* At your next campout, just before sunset grab some friends and have them stand in front of camp, with the sunlight coming from one side, casting shadows on their faces. Take 2 pictures. One with fill-in flash, and one without. What was the difference?


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[[Image:Undeveloped film.png|thumb|right|300px|Undeveloped black & white film]]


[[W:Photographic film|Photographic film]] is a sheet of plastic (polyester, nitrocellulose or cellulose acetate) which is coated with an emulsion containing light-sensitive silver halide salts (bonded by gelatin) with different crystal sizes that determine the sensitivity and resolution of the film. When this emulsion is subjected to sufficient exposure to light, it forms a latent (invisible) image. Chemical processes are then applied to the film to create a visible image, in a process called film developing.


In black-and-white photographic film there is usually one layer of silver salts. When the exposed areas are developed, the silver salts are changed to metallic silver, which block light and appear as the black part of the film negative.


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''Here is additional information on negatives for a more complete perspective on film & negatives''


[[Image:Pozytyw_i_negatyw.jpg|thumb|right|Color, positive picture (A) and negative (B), monochrome positive picture (C) and negative (D)]]


In photography, a '''negative''' may refer to 3 different things, although they are all related.


'''A negative'''<br>
[[W:Photographic film|Film]] for common 35mm cameras comes in long narrow strips of chemical coated plastic. As each image is captured by the camera onto the film strip, the film strip advances so that the next image is projected onto unexposed film. When the film is developed it is a long strip of small negative images. This strip is often cut into sections for easier handling. In larger cameras this piece of film may be as large as a full sheet of paper, or even larger, with a single image captured onto one piece. Each of these negative images may be referred to as a '''negative''' and the entire strip or set of images may be collectively referred to as negatives. These negative images are the master images, from which all other copies will be made, and they are treated with care and handled with caution.


'''Negative image'''<br>
A positive image is a normal image. A '''negative image''' is a tonal inversion of a positive image, in which light areas appear dark and vice versa. A negative color image is additionally [[W:color reversed|color reversed]], with red areas appearing cyan, greens appearing magenta and blues appearing yellow.


'''Negative film'''<br>
Due to happenstance, many photographic processes create negative images: the chemicals involved react when exposed to light, and during developing these exposed chemicals are retained and become opaque while the unexposed chemicals are washed away. However, when a negative image is created from a negative image (just like multiplying two [[W:negative numbers|negative numbers]] in mathematics) a positive image results (see [[W:Color print film|Color print film]], [[W:C-41 process|C-41 process]]). This makes most chemical based photography a two step process. These are called '''negative''', films and processes. Special films and development processes have been devised such that positive images can be created directly from film, these are called ''positive'', or ''slide'', or (perhaps confusingly) ''reversal'' film (see [[W:Transparency (photography)|Transparency]], [[W:Black and white reversal film|Black and white reversal film]], [[W:E-6 process|E-6 process]]).


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[[W:Reversal_film|Slides]] (otherwise called '''transparency''') is a still, positive image created on a transparent base using photochemical means. ''This is opposite of [[W:Negative_%28photography%29|negatives]]''.


The earliest color photography was the [[W:Autochrome|Autochrome]] process. This used an additive 'screen-plate' method which produced a color slide, but was fairly dim and the color resolution was limited by the fineness of the screen-plate.


When developing a ''slide'', the film is first developed to a negative image and then reversed to a positive image.


Eventually, a practical method using a 'subtractive' method was the [[W:Kodachrome|Kodachrome]] process, the first commercially successful amateur color film, introduced in 1935. It produced much brighter color transparencies. The '''Kodachrome''' [[W:K-14 process|K-14 developing process]] is very complicated and requires technicians with extensive chemistry training, as well as large machinery which is extremely difficult to operate. This complexity discourages use by home amateurs or small laboratories. In the early 1990s Kodak offered the "K-Lab" process to small labs in an attempt to increase the availability of the K-14 process, but ultimately this was not successful; with the final two K-Lab -equipped labs (Horiuchi Color in Tokyo and Kodak's own plant in Lausanne) shutting down and Kodak discontinuing the "B-I-B" (bag-in-box) K-14 chemistry required for the K-Lab.


After K14 processing was discontinued, [[W:Ektachrome|Ektachrome]] and [[W:Fujichrome|Fujichrome]] slide films are the only remaining color reversal films that can be readily processed in many cities and larger professional photo studios.


The [[W:E-6_process|E-6 process]] is used for developing [[W:Ektachrome|Ektachrome]], [[W:Fujichrome|Fujichrome]], and other [[W:Transparency_%28photography%29|color reversal]] (slide) photographic film.


Here's the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-6_process#Three_step_processing three step processing]:
# Pre-warm
# First developer and reversal
# First wash
# Color developer
# Second wash
# Bleach-Fix
# Wash
# Stabilizer (final rinse)


Here's the more technical [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-6_process#Conventional_six_step_processing conventional six step processing].
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AY Honors/Paper Quilling/Answer Key

2021-08-01T15:02:34Z

BoisSar:

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Paper quilling was originally called '''paper rolling''' or '''paper filigree'''


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During the Renaissance, French and Italian nuns and monks used quilling to decorate book covers and religious items. The paper most commonly used was strips of paper trimmed from the gilded edges of books. These gilded paper strips were then rolled to create the quilled shapes. Quilling often imitated the original ironwork of the day.
In the 18th century, quilling became popular in Europe where "ladies of leisure" practiced the art. Quilling also spread to the Americas and there are a few examples from Colonial times. Many of the pieces that have been preserved from this time are found religious plaques and artwork.
Today, quilling is seeing resurgence in popularity. The craft has become increasingly popular due to the low cost of the basic material, paper, that is required to make the shapes. It is used to decorate wedding invitations, birth announcements, greeting cards, scrapbook pages, and boxes. Quilling can be found in art galleries in Europe and in the United States and is an art that is practiced around the world.


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*Quilling Wand (Slotted Tool)
*Paper strips
*Glue
*Ruler
*Pins and Cardboard (to make eccentric coils if wanted)


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image:Paper Quilling 1.jpg|1. To make a tight circle, take a quilling wand and a paper strip cut the you desired length. Put the end of the paper strip into the slot on the quilling wand.
image:Paper quilling 2.jpg|2. Then, holding the paper strip kind of taut with your left hand, roll the wand toward your left hand with your right hand
Image:Paper quilling 3.jpg|3. Keep rolling and once you get to the end of the paper strip, put a tiny dot of glue on the end of the strip and press it against the side of the circle and hold it there for 5-10 seconds for the glue to dry
Image:Paper quilling 4.jpg|4. Now, slip the tight circle off the quilling wand and... voila!! You have made a tight circle.
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Image:Circle.jpg|1. The loose circle is almost the same as a tight circle. You start off the same way as you did with the tight circle but when you get to the end of the strip, don't put any glue on the strip, but pull the circle off the quilling wand.
Image:Poof.jpg|2. Now, set it on a table and let it poof out!!
Image:Glueeee.jpg|3. Then, put a little dot of glue on the end of the paper strip and press it against the side of the circle and hold it there for 5-10 seconds.
Image:Loose circlee.jpg|4. And now you have a loose circle!!
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Image:Teardroppaper.jpg|1. To make a teardrop, start out with a loose circle. Pinch one side of the circle into a point
image:Teardropquilling.jpg|2. Now you have made a teardrop!
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Image:Shaped tear.jpg| 1. To make a shaped teardrop, start off with a teardrop, but curl the point downwards.
Image:Shapedteardrop.jpg| 2. And now you have made a shaped teardrop!
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Image:Marquise! .jpg| 1. to make a marquise, start off with a loose circle, then pinch it on opposite sides.
Image:Marquiseeeeee.jpg| 2. Now you have, a marquise!
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These are very fun to make! All you need to know is how to make the basic shapes and scrolls listed above. You can combine the shapes to make beautiful flowers, butterflies, and designs. Then you can glue them onto a card or a piece of paper and hang it in your room. Here is a simple floral design using marquises, S scrolls, loose scrolls, V Scrolls, teardrops, and tight circles.


[[Image:Flowerdesign.jpg|right]]


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AY Honors/Crocheting/Answer Key

2021-08-01T14:38:01Z

BoisSar:

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{|border=1 align=center cellspacing=1 cellpadding=5
|-
|'''ST, STS'''|| stitch, stitches
|-
|'''SP, SPS'''|| space, spaces
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|'''RND, RNDS'''|| round, rounds
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|'''INCL'''|| inclusive, including
|-
|'''INC'''|| increase
|-
|'''DEC'''|| decrease
|}


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SC means single crochet.
DC means double crochet.
HDC means half double crochet.
TC means triple crochet.
DTR means double triple crochet.

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Here is a good explanation: http://www.wikihow.com/Check-a-Crochet-Gauge


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==References== 
* [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Crochet Introduction to Crochet].
* [http://ravelry.com Ravelry.com]
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AY Honors/Basketry/Answer Key

2021-08-01T14:34:02Z

BoisSar:

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Most (70%) of the world's rattan grows in '''Indonesia''', distributed among Borneo, Celebes, Sumbawa islands. The rest of the world's supply comes from the '''Philippines''', '''Sri Lanka''', '''Malaysia''' and '''Bangladesh'''.


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To properly prepare reed for use in weaving, it must be allowed to dry completely for 3-7 days prior to use. This time might be shorter (or longer) depending on your local humidity. Store reeds out of direct sunlight to limit discoloration due to sun exposure. When you are ready to begin your project, first trim your reeds to the desired length. Then. soak one or two lengths of reed in warm (not hot) water for 5-10 minutes until the reeds bend easily. Make sure the reeds do not become waterlogged (soggy).


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Sharp knife,peg, pair of round-nosed pliers, awl, two bodkins, rapping iron to tap down the wave on heavy cane work, cane seat weaver. (Note: A blunted chisel will do instead of the rapping iron, just wind a piece of tape around the end to protect the cane.)

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Weaver singeing refers to removing the small hairs or splinters that form on the reds as you weave. The most common method is to burn them off using a blowtorch or lighter, thus the term '''''singeing.''''' This can be dangerous for several reasons; including the risk of burning yourself or your basket. IF this method is used, don't keep the flame in one place too long, or you will damage the basket reeds. This must be done while the basket is still damp.


An alternative (and safer) method is to trim the hairs or splits off using some heavy duty shear. You may want to do a small bit of sanding afterwards to smooth the trimmed areas.


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To bruise or compress the basket making fibers in a very small area.


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AY Honors/Glass Craft/Answer Key

2021-07-26T18:11:43Z

BoisSar:

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It is sufficient to merely name these. We present a little more information about them though, as that makes the list more ''meaningful''.
;Soda-lime glass: Soda-lime glass, also called soda-lime-silica glass, is the most prevalent type of glass, used for windowpanes, and glass containers (bottles and jars) for beverages, food, and some commodity items. Glass bakeware is often made of tempered soda-lime glass.
;Borosilicate glass: Borosilicate glass is a type of glass well known for having very low coefficient of thermal expansion, making them resistant to thermal shock, more so than any other common glass. Borosilicate glass was first developed by German glassmaker Otto Schott in the late 19th century and sold under the brand name "Duran" in 1893. After Corning Glass Works introduced Pyrex in 1915, it became a synonym for borosilicate glass in the English-speaking world.
;Acrylic glass: Acrylic glass is a transparent thermoplastic. It is sold under many trade names, including Policril, Plexiglas, Gavrieli, Vitroflex, Limacryl, R-Cast, Per-Clax, Perspex, Plazcryl, Acrylex, Acrylite, Acrylplast, Altuglas, Polycast, Oroglass, Optix and Lucite and is commonly called acrylic, perspex or plexiglas.
;Sugar glass: Sugar glass (also called candy glass and breakaway glass) is an edible mixture of sugar, corn syrup and water, which has the appearance of glass when hardened for a limited time before warping and melting. It is used in stunt sequences of television and film in the place of real glass, as it breaks more easily and is less dangerous than real glass. Sugar glass must be used soon after hardening or it loses its effect.
;Isinglass (Muscovy-glass): Muscovite (also known as Common mica, Isinglass, or Potash mica) is a phyllosilicate mineral of aluminium and potassium.
;Aluminium oxynitride: Aluminium oxynitride (AlON) is a transparent ceramic composed of aluminium, oxygen and nitrogen. It is marketed under the name ALON. The material remains solid up to 1,200 °C (2,190 °F), and is harder than glass. When formed and polished as a window, the material costs about US$10 to US$15 per square inch (~ US$20,000/m²). It is currently the crucial outer layer of experimental transparent armor being considered by the US Air Force for the windows of armored vehicles.
;Fluoride glasses: Fluoride glass is a class of non-oxide optical glasses composed of fluorides of various metals. Heavy metal fluoride glasses (HMFG) are composed of heavy metal fluorides. They are very clear, but also are difficult to manufacture, are fragile, and have poor resistance to moisture and other environmental attacks.
;Aluminosilicates: Aluminosilicate minerals are minerals composed of aluminium, silicon, and oxygen. They are a major component of kaolin and other clay minerals.
;Phosphate glasses: Phosphate glass is a class of optical glasses composed of metaphosphates of various metals. Instead of SiO2 in silicate glasses, the glass forming substrate is P2O5. Phosphate glasses can be advantageous over silica glasses for optical fibers.
;Chalcogenide glasses: The modern technological applications of chalcogenide glasses are widespread specifically as moldable infrared optics including lenses, and infrared optical fibers as these materials transmit across the full range of the infrared spectrum. The physical properties of chalcogenide glasses (High refractive index, low phonon energy) also make them ideal for incorporation into laser and other active devices when doped with rare earth ions.


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When people speak of glass, they ordinarily mean a transparent, shiny substance that breaks rather easily. They may think of the glass in windows and the glass used in eyeglasses as being the same material. Actually, they are not. There are many kinds of glass.


'''Flat glass''' is used chiefly in windows. It is also used in mirrors, room dividers, and some kinds of furniture. All flat glass is made in the form of flat sheets. But some of it, such as that used in automobile windshields, is reheated and sagged (curved) over molds.


'''Glass containers''' are used for packaging food, beverages, medicines, chemicals, and cosmetics. Glass jars and bottles are made in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and colors. Many are for common uses, such as soft-drink bottles or jars for home canning. Others are made from special glass formulas to make sure there will be no contamination or deterioration of blood plasma, serums, and chemicals stored in them. See .


'''Optical glass''' is used in eyeglasses, microscopes, telescopes, camera lenses, and many instruments for factories and laboratories. The raw materials must be pure so that the glass can be made almost flawless. The care required for producing optical glass makes it expensive compared with other kinds of glass.


'''Fiberglass''' consists of fine but solid rods of glass, each of which may be less than one-twentieth the width of a human hair. These tiny glass fibers can be loosely packed together in a woollike mass that can serve as heat insulation. They also can be used like wool or cotton fibers to make glass yarn, tape, cloth, and mats. Fiberglass has many other uses. It is used for electrical insulation, chemical filtration, and firefighters' suits. Combined with plastics, fiberglass can be used for airplane wings and bodies, automobile bodies, and boat hulls. Fiberglass is a popular curtain material because it is fire-resistant and washable.


'''Laminated safety glass''' is a “sandwich” made by combining alternate layers of flat glass and plastics. The outside layer of glass may break when struck by an object, but the plastic layer is elastic and so it stretches. The plastic holds the broken pieces of glass together and keeps them from flying in all directions. Laminated glass is used where broken glass might cause serious injuries, as in automobile windshields.


'''Bullet-resisting glass''' is thick, multilayer laminated glass. This glass can stop even heavy-caliber bullets at close range. Bullet-resisting glass is heavy enough to absorb the energy of the bullet, and the several plastic layers hold the shattered fragments together. Such glass is used in bank teller windows and in windshields for military tanks, aircraft, and special automobiles.


'''Tempered safety glass''', unlike laminated glass, is a single piece that has been given a special heat treatment. It looks, feels, and weighs the same as ordinary glass. But it can be several times stronger. Tempered glass is used widely for all-glass doors in stores, side and rear windows of automobiles, and basketball backboards, and for other special purposes. It is hard to break even when hit with a hammer. When it does break, the whole piece of glass collapses into small, dull-edged fragments.


'''Colored structural glass''' is a heavy plate glass, available in many colors. It is used in buildings as an exterior facing, and for interior walls, partitions, and tabletops.


'''Opal glass''' has small particles in the body of the glass that disperse the light passing through it, making the glass appear milky. The ingredients necessary to produce opal glass include fluorides (chemical compounds containing fluorine). This glass is widely used in lighting fixtures and for tableware.


'''Foam glass''', when it is cut, looks like a black honeycomb. It is filled with many tiny cells of gas. Each cell is surrounded and sealed off from the others by thin walls of glass. Foam glass is so light that it floats on water. It is widely used as a heat insulator in buildings, on steam pipes, and on chemical equipment. Foam glass can be cut into various shapes with a saw.


'''Glass building blocks''' are made from two hollow half-sections sealed together at a high temperature. Glass building blocks are good insulators against heat or cold because of the dead-air space inside. The blocks are laid like bricks to make walls and other structures.


'''Heat-resistant glass''' is high in silica and usually contains boric oxide. It expands little when heated, so it can withstand great temperature changes without cracking. This quality is necessary in cookware and other household equipment, and in many types of industrial gear.


'''Laboratory glassware''' includes beakers, flasks, test tubes, and special chemical apparatus. It is made from heat-resistant glass to withstand severe heat shock (rapid change in temperature). This glass is also much more resistant to chemical attack than ordinary glass.


'''Glass for electrical uses.''' Glass has properties that make it useful in electrical applications: ability to resist heat, resistance to the flow of electric current, and ability to seal tightly to metals without cracking. Because of these properties, glass is used in electric light bulbs and for picture tubes in television sets.


'''Glass optical fibers''' are glass fibers used to transmit information as pulses of light. Thin, extremely pure optical fibers are used to carry telephone and television signals and digital (numeric) data over long distances. Glass optical fibers are also used in control board displays and in medical instruments.


'''Glass tubing''' is used to make fluorescent lights, neon signs, glass piping, and chemical apparatus. Glass tubing is made from many kinds of glass and in many sizes.


'''Glass-ceramics''' are strong materials made by heating glass to rearrange some of its atoms into regular patterns. These partially crystalline materials can withstand high temperatures, sudden changes in temperature, and chemical attacks better than ordinary glass can. They are used in a variety of products, including heat-resistant cookware, turbine engines, electronic equipment, and nose cones of guided missiles. Glass-ceramics have such trade names as Pyroceram, Cervit, and Hercuvit.


'''Radiation-absorbing and radiation-transmitting glass''' can transmit, modify, or block heat, light, X rays, and other types of radiant energy. For example, ultraviolet glass absorbs the ultraviolet rays of the sun but transmits visible light. Other glass transmits heat rays freely but passes little visible light. Polarized glass cuts out the glare of brilliant light. One-way glass is specially coated so that a person can look through a window without being seen from the other side.


'''Laser glass''' is an optical glass containing small amounts of substances that enable the glass to generate laser beams efficiently. Such glass is used as the active medium in solid-state lasers, a type of laser that sends light out through crystals or glass (One substance commonly used in laser glass is the element neodymium. Researchers are using glass lasers in an attempt to harness nuclear fusion (the joining of atomic nuclei) as a source of commercially useful amounts of energy. In their experiments, powerful glass lasers heat hydrogen atoms until hydrogen nuclei fuse, releasing large amounts of energy.


"Invisible glass" is used principally for coated camera lenses and eyeglasses. The coating is a chemical film that decreases the normal loss of light by reflection. This allows more light to pass through the glass.


'''Photochromic glass''' darkens when exposed to ultraviolet rays and clears up when the rays are removed. Photochromic glass is used for windows, sunglasses, and instrument controls.


'''Photosensitive glass''' can be exposed to ultraviolet light and to heat so that any pattern or photograph can be reproduced within the body of the glass itself. Because the photographic print then becomes an actual part of the glass, it will last as long as the glass itself.


'''Photochemical glass''' is a special composition of photosensitive glass that can be cut by acid. Any design can be reproduced on the glass from a photographic film. Then when the glass is dipped in acid, the exposed areas are eaten away, leaving the design in the glass in three dimensions. By this means, lacelike glass patterns can be made.


'''Heavy metal fluoride glass''' is an extremely transparent glass being developed for use in optical fibers that transmit infrared rays. Infrared rays are much like light waves but are invisible to the human eye. In optical fibers, infrared light transmits better over distance than visible light does.


'''Chalcogenide glass''' is made up of elements from the chalcogen group, including selenium, sulfur, and tellurium. The glass is transparent to infrared light and is useful as a semiconductor in some electronic devices. Chalcogenide glass fibers are a component of devices used to perform laser surgery.


'''Sol-Gel glass''' can be used as a protective coating on certain solar collectors or as an insulating material. It is also used to make short, thick tubes that are drawn into optical fibers. To make Sol-Gel glass, workers dissolve the ingredients in a liquid. They then heat the liquid. The liquid evaporates, leaving behind small particles of glass. Heating these particles fuses (joins) them to form a solid piece of glass. The temperatures involved in Sol-Gel processes are often lower than those needed to make ordinary glass.


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See the steps in the next requirement. The glass work will be more interesting if you use multiple colors. Clear and white are colors too. Consider thrift stores as a source of cheap colored glass.


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There are a variety of ways to make a picture with glass. Some people arrange beach glass in a frame, gluing the pieces down. Some people melt glass together (Color Me Mine now offers this kind of project). You might like to try stained glass. Pinterest is a great place to search for ideas. Here we provide instructions for one style of project.

===Grouted Mosaic=== 
;Step 1. Decide on a project: If you have a tabletop that is damaged or needs refinishing, you could cover it in glass mosaic instead. Kitchen tables, coffee tables, end tables, nightstands, and occasional tables all look great with glass mosaic tops. An old windowpane covered in glass mosaic makes a great alternative to stained glass, or you could cover a photo frame in glass mosaic as a smaller project. If you have a bathroom or kitchen floor that needs to be redone, you could cover it cheaply and attractively in tile mosaic.


;Step 2. Finding enough glass or tile for your project: You can find it in many different places, and for fairly cheap if you are creative about it. If your project calls for clear glass, you can use colored bottles, vases, ashtrays, and other various pieces of clear, colored glass. If you want opaque glass, consider using old dishes and other unwanted glass or porcelain items. You may also be able to find broken tile for little or no money.


;Step 3. Break the glass for your project: The goal is to create many random-shaped pieces that are large enough to work with. In other words, you don’t want to shatter the glass into bits. Hit each piece of glass with the hammer just once and take a look at the results before hitting it again.Once you have broken all of your glass into pieces, start arranging it on the surface that you are redoing. Of all the steps to making glass mosaics, this step requires the most time and planning. You will need to decide whether to create a picture or a pattern with your glass mosaic, or just arrange the pieces randomly.While you are doing this, keep in mind that the pieces don’t need to fit together perfectly, like a puzzle. In fact, there should be about an eighth of an inch of space between each piece, so that you have room for the grout when you get to that step.


;Step 4. Arrange the colors and the size according to your desires:


;Step 5. Glue down each and every piece of glass: The point of arranging the glass first, and then gluing it down is to make sure you get everything in the right place, so make sure you are done with the previous step before you start on this one.


;Step 6. Fill in all the spaces between the pieces of glass with grout: Take the grout and be sure to fill every space completely. If the glass is still sharp, you will need to wear rubber dishwashing gloves to protect your hands. Once the spaces are all filled, you can use a damp towel to remove the grout from the tops of the pieces of glass. Once your glass mosaic is finished, be sure to let the glue and grout set for a while before using the piece, particularly if it is a table or a window hanging.


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===India (Hindu Kingdoms)=== 
Indigenous development of glass technology in South Asia may have begun in 1730 BCE. Evidence of this culture includes a red-brown glass bead along with a hoard of beads dating to that period, making it the earliest attested glass from the Indus Valley locations. Glass discovered from later sites dating from 600–300 BCE displays common color.


Chalcolithic evidence of glass has been found in Hastinapur, India. Some of the texts which mention glass in India are the Shatapatha Brahmana and Vinaya Pitaka. However, the first unmistakable evidence in large quantities, dating from the 3rd century BCE, has been uncovered from the archaeological site in takshashila, ancient India.


By the first century C.E., glass was being used for ornaments and casing in South Asia. Contact with the Greco-Roman world added newer techniques, and Indians artisans mastered several techniques of glass molding, decorating and coloring by the succeeding centuries.[41] The Satavahana period of India also produced short cylinders of composite glass, including those displaying a lemon yellow matrix covered with green glass.

===Islamic world=== 
The Arab poet al-Buhturi (820–897) described the clarity of such glass, "Its color hides the glass as if it is standing in it without a container."


Stained glass was also first produced by Muslim architects in Southwest Asia using colored glass rather than stone. In the 8th century, the Arab chemist Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber) scientifically described 46 original recipes for producing colored glass in Kitab al-Durra al-Maknuna (The Book of the Hidden Pearl), in addition to 12 recipes inserted by al-Marrakishi in a later edition of the book.


By the 11th century, clear glass mirrors were being produced in Islamic Spain.

===Medieval Europe=== 
Glass objects from the 7th and 8th centuries have been found on the island of Torcello near Venice. These form an important link between Roman times and the later importance of that city in the production of the material. Around 1000 AD, an important technical breakthrough was made in Northern Europe when soda glass, produced from white pebbles and burnt vegetation was replaced by glass made from a much more readily available material: potash obtained from wood ashes. From this point on, northern glass differed significantly from that made in the Mediterranean area, where soda remained in common use.


Until the 12th century, stained glass – glass to which metallic or other impurities had been added for coloring – was not widely used.


The 11th century saw the emergence in Germany of new ways of making sheet glass by blowing spheres. The spheres were swung out to form cylinders and then cut while still hot, after which the sheets were flattened. This technique was perfected in 13th century Venice.


The Crown glass process was used up to the mid-19th century. In this process, the glassblower would spin approximately 9 pounds (4 kg) of molten glass at the end of a rod until it flattened into a disk approximately 5 feet (1.5 m) in diameter. The disk would then be cut into panes.

===Murano glassmaking=== 
The center for glassmaking from the 14th century was the island of Murano, which developed many new techniques and became the center of a lucrative export trade in dinnerware, mirrors, and other luxury items. What made Venetian Murano glass significantly different was that the local quartz pebbles were almost pure silica, and were ground into a fine clear sand that was combined with soda ash obtained from the Levant, for which the Venetians held the sole monopoly. The clearest and finest glass is tinted in two ways: firstly, a small or large amount of a natural coloring agent is ground and melted with the glass. Many of these coloring agents still exist today; for a list of coloring agents, see below. Black glass was called obsidianus after obsidian stone. A second method is apparently to produce a black glass which, when held to the light, will show the true color that this glass will give to another glass when used as a dye.


The Venetian ability to produce this superior form of glass resulted in a trade advantage over other glass producing lands. Murano’s reputation as a center for glassmaking was born when the Venetian Republic, fearing fire might burn down the city’s mostly wood buildings, ordered glassmakers to move their foundries to Murano in 1291. Murano's glassmakers were soon the island’s most prominent citizens. Glassmakers were not allowed to leave the Republic. Many took a risk and set up glass furnaces in surrounding cities and as far afield as England and the Netherlands.


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==References== 
Ahmad Y Hassan, Assessment of Kitab al-Durra al-Maknuna, History of Science and Technology in Islam.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass
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AY Honors/Flower Arrangement/Answer Key

2021-07-26T18:04:06Z

BoisSar:

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{|border=1 cellspacing=1 cellpadding=10 align='center'


!style bgcolor='#ffb0b0' width='50%'|Perennials
!style bgcolor='#b0b0ff' width='50%'|Annuals
|-
|style bgcolor='#ffc0c0'|
*Rose
*Tulip
*Daffodil
*Rhododendron
*Hyacinth
*Gaillardia Blanket Flower
*Statice
*Yarrow
*Magnolia
*Baby's Breath


|style bgcolor='#c0c0ff'|
*Zinnia
*Aster
*Cosmos
*Sunflower
*Snapdragon
*Carnation
*Marigold
*Salvia
*Morning Glory
*Bachelor Button


|}


'''Annuals''' are those flowers that complete their lifecycle in just one growing season. In other words, you plant a seed (or a seedling plant), it grows foliage, then flowers, seeds and then the plant dies, all in the same year. Annual flowers tend to bloom from spring until autumn frost. Although they must be replanted each year, annuals are hard to beat in terms of showy, season-long color.


'''Perennials''' are those flowers that grow for three or more years. Although most perennials tend to have a relatively short season of bloom, combining several species in your planting can yield season-long color. <ref>http://www.hort.purdue.edu/ext/annper.html</ref>

===Perennials=== 
<gallery>
File:Rosa Perfect Moment 1.jpg|Rose
File:Tulip - floriade canberra.jpg|Tulip
File:Rhododendron albrechtii 2.JPG|Rhododendron
File:Hyacinthus orientalis0.jpg|Hyacinth
File:BlanketFlowerGaillardiapulchellaTexas.jpg|Gaillardia Blanket Flower
File:140 Statice armeria.jpg|Statice
File:Yarrow.gif|Yarrow
File:Magnolia grandiflora2.jpg|Magnolia
File:Gypsophila_elegans.jpg|Baby's Breath


</gallery>

===Annuals=== 
<gallery>
File:Aster-alpinus.JPG|Aster
File:Cosmos-flower.jpg|Cosmos
File:Sun Flower and a bud.JPG|Sunflower
File:Carnation.jpg|Carnation
File:Marigold.jpg|Marigold
File:Salvia azurea1.jpg|Salvia
File:Hort Park, Singapore (3315878968).jpg|Morning Glory


</gallery>


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Rose, Daffodil, Statice, Calla Lily, Snapdragon, Columbine, Iris, Baby's Breath.


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'''Don't keep well''': Poppy, Petunia, Morning Glory, Daisy, Dahlia, Orchid, Hibiscus.


'''Keep well''': Rose, Statice, Carnation, Baby's Breath, Snapdragon.


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# Cut flower stems with a sharp knife or pruners.
# Do NOT use scissors as they can pinch and damage the stem tissue, decreasing the flower's ability to take in water and nutrients.
# Stems should be cut at a 45º angle. This allows for more water and nutrient intake.
# Cut flowers in early morning or evening when cooler.This helps to limit flower wilting due to humidity.
# Place cut stems in water as soon as possible. This helps to prevent drying out or wilting.
# When storing flowers in buckets or vases, do not overfill with flowers, to allow for air circulation.
# Always store flowers with cut end in water. Never submerge blooms or foliage.
# Remove any foliage that would be submerged in water once the flower is placed in its display container.
# Always remove foliage and cut flower stems with a sharp knife or pruners. Never strip foliage by hand or shorten the stems by breaking them. This damages the tissues that help the flower take in water.
# Never place an arrangement of live flowers in direct sunlight, as this will cause the flowers to fade and wilt faster.
# Be sure to change water daily.
# To help flowers keep longer, store in a cool place in your home (mudroom, etc.), or in your refrigerator (Approximately 35º F).
# If storing in your refrigerator, be sure to keep separate from any fruits. Some fruits release gases that can cause the flowers to brown and ages faster.
# A Preservative may also be added to the water. There are many that are commercially available, but you can make your own using one part sugar to 3 parts water.
# If using silk flowers, be sure to use wire cutters instead of pruners or a sharp knife, as the wire used in the stems of silk flowers can damage the pruners.


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;Roses: Cut when petals are half-open. This allows for the rose to open fully after harvest.
;Gladioluses: Cut when 3/4 of the flowers have opened. Cut a spike that contains 1-4 open blooms on it. Harvest in early morning before stalks dry and leave 3-4 leaves on on plant harvested from to allow for the plant to produce the following year.
;Dahlias: Cut when flowers are almost fully open. Harvesting sooner may cause them not to open at all.


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;Containers: Some flowers are considered to be more suited to more ornate containers, and some to simple. For instance, if you were doing an arrangement with uses, use Glass or ceramic containers. For wildflowers such as daisies, use wicker or plastic. Use bowls or short baskets for short flowers. Use baskets for silk flowers or flowers like daisies. Use tall vases for tall flowers.


The size and shape of the container and arrangement also depends on it's intended use.
* Small arrangements like the Mound can be used on end tables or as accent pieces.
* Triangular arrangements are often used as altar centerpieces or as focal pieces along walls to add visual interest to the blank space.
* Asymmetrical arrangements work best in shallow containers and are often used as focal points in entryways, on mantels, and on the end of buffet tables.
* The Crescent is similar to the Asymmetrical arrangement. Low, oblong or oval containers are often used, and it is placed in similar locations to the Asymmetrical arrangements.
* The Hogarth Curve is an attention-grabber. it is often displayed prominently in tall vase or as a door or wall piece.


;Room furnishings: Use large arrangements for table center pieces. Use small arrangements for side or end tables. Flower colors should contrast with the wall colors.


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*Use dark flowers in front of light backgrounds.
*Use light flowers in front of dark backgrounds.
*Use large flowers as the center focus flowers in an arrangement.
*Use small flowers as filler flowers in an arrangement near the vase's edges. Use open flowers as the center focus flowers in an arrangement.
*Use partly open flowers as filler flowers in an arrangement near the vase's edges.
*Also, use large flowers to construct the primary angles and focal points.


<gallery>
File:Short arrangement1.jpg|Short Arrangement
File:Hogarth Curve.jpg|Hogarth Curve
</gallery>


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Short arrangements, generally small mound arrangements in baskets or short vases.
<gallery>
File:Table Decoration1.jpg
File:Table Decoration2.jpg
File:Table Decoration3.jpg
File:Table Decoration4.jpg
File:Table Decoration5.jpg
</gallery>


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Medium arrangements in baskets or bud vases, to be placed on a table or in an entry way.
<gallery>
File:House use1.jpg
File:House use2.jpg
File:House use3.jpg
File:House use4.jpg
File:House use5.jpg
</gallery>


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Large arrangements in vases or baskets, intended for display in public areas such as an office or a church foyer or sanctuary.
<gallery>
File:Public use1.jpg
File:Public use2.jpg
File:Public use3.jpg
File:Public use4.jpg
File:Public use5.jpg
File:Public use6.jpg
</gallery>


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Wildflowers that can be used include wild rose, daisy, blanket flowers, sunflowers and wild sweet peas. Use wildflowers whose sizes and colors complement each other.


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== Additional Information == 
The following information was not included in the honor requirements, but it should be.

===Tools for use with live flowers=== 
* Sharp pruners or a sharp knife.
* Five gallon bucket with water in it.
* Preservative (an easy one is 1 part sugar/3 parts water).
* Floral foam - can be soaked in water to help the flowers keep longer in an arrangement that will not take water. It is also a sturdy base with which to help position the flowers for an arrangement.

===Tools for use with silk flowers=== 
* Pliers
* Wire cutters
* Floral tape
* Floral wire
* Floral foam (dry) - It is a sturdy base with which to help position the flowers for an arrangement.

== References == 
<references/>
[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
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AY Honors/Flower Arrangement/Answer Key

2021-07-26T18:03:01Z

BoisSar:

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{|border=1 cellspacing=1 cellpadding=10 align='center'


!style bgcolor='#ffb0b0' width='50%'|Perennials
!style bgcolor='#b0b0ff' width='50%'|Annuals
|-
|style bgcolor='#ffc0c0'|
*Rose
*Tulip
*Daffodil
*Rhododendron
*Hyacinth
*Gaillardia Blanket Flower
*Statice
*Yarrow
*Magnolia
*Baby's Breath


|style bgcolor='#c0c0ff'|
*Zinnia
*Aster
*Cosmos
*Sunflower
*Snapdragon
*Carnation
*Marigold
*Salvia
*Morning Glory
*Bachelor Button


|}


'''Annuals''' are those flowers that complete their lifecycle in just one growing season. In other words, you plant a seed (or a seedling plant), it grows foliage, then flowers, seeds and then the plant dies, all in the same year. Annual flowers tend to bloom from spring until autumn frost. Although they must be replanted each year, annuals are hard to beat in terms of showy, season-long color.


'''Perennials''' are those flowers that grow for three or more years. Although most perennials tend to have a relatively short season of bloom, combining several species in your planting can yield season-long color. <ref>http://www.hort.purdue.edu/ext/annper.html</ref>

===Perennials=== 
<gallery>
File:Rosa Perfect Moment 1.jpg|Rose
File:Tulip - floriade canberra.jpg|Tulip
File:Rhododendron albrechtii 2.JPG|Rhododendron
File:Hyacinthus orientalis0.jpg|Hyacinth
File:BlanketFlowerGaillardiapulchellaTexas.jpg|Gaillardia Blanket Flower
File:140 Statice armeria.jpg|Statice
File:Yarrow.gif|Yarrow
File:Magnolia grandiflora2.jpg|Magnolia
File:Gypsophila_elegans.jpg|Baby's Breath


</gallery>

===Annuals=== 
<gallery>
File:Lotus alpinus.JPG|Lotus
File:Aster-alpinus.JPG|Aster
File:Cosmos-flower.jpg|Cosmos
File:Sun Flower and a bud.JPG|Sunflower
File:Narcissus.calcicola.7114.jpg|Daffodil
File:Carnation.jpg|Carnation
File:Marigold.jpg|Marigold
File:Salvia azurea1.jpg|Salvia
File:Hort Park, Singapore (3315878968).jpg|Morning Glory


</gallery>


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Rose, Daffodil, Statice, Calla Lily, Snapdragon, Columbine, Iris, Baby's Breath.


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'''Don't keep well''': Poppy, Petunia, Morning Glory, Daisy, Dahlia, Orchid, Hibiscus.


'''Keep well''': Rose, Statice, Carnation, Baby's Breath, Snapdragon.


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# Cut flower stems with a sharp knife or pruners.
# Do NOT use scissors as they can pinch and damage the stem tissue, decreasing the flower's ability to take in water and nutrients.
# Stems should be cut at a 45º angle. This allows for more water and nutrient intake.
# Cut flowers in early morning or evening when cooler.This helps to limit flower wilting due to humidity.
# Place cut stems in water as soon as possible. This helps to prevent drying out or wilting.
# When storing flowers in buckets or vases, do not overfill with flowers, to allow for air circulation.
# Always store flowers with cut end in water. Never submerge blooms or foliage.
# Remove any foliage that would be submerged in water once the flower is placed in its display container.
# Always remove foliage and cut flower stems with a sharp knife or pruners. Never strip foliage by hand or shorten the stems by breaking them. This damages the tissues that help the flower take in water.
# Never place an arrangement of live flowers in direct sunlight, as this will cause the flowers to fade and wilt faster.
# Be sure to change water daily.
# To help flowers keep longer, store in a cool place in your home (mudroom, etc.), or in your refrigerator (Approximately 35º F).
# If storing in your refrigerator, be sure to keep separate from any fruits. Some fruits release gases that can cause the flowers to brown and ages faster.
# A Preservative may also be added to the water. There are many that are commercially available, but you can make your own using one part sugar to 3 parts water.
# If using silk flowers, be sure to use wire cutters instead of pruners or a sharp knife, as the wire used in the stems of silk flowers can damage the pruners.


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;Roses: Cut when petals are half-open. This allows for the rose to open fully after harvest.
;Gladioluses: Cut when 3/4 of the flowers have opened. Cut a spike that contains 1-4 open blooms on it. Harvest in early morning before stalks dry and leave 3-4 leaves on on plant harvested from to allow for the plant to produce the following year.
;Dahlias: Cut when flowers are almost fully open. Harvesting sooner may cause them not to open at all.


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;Containers: Some flowers are considered to be more suited to more ornate containers, and some to simple. For instance, if you were doing an arrangement with uses, use Glass or ceramic containers. For wildflowers such as daisies, use wicker or plastic. Use bowls or short baskets for short flowers. Use baskets for silk flowers or flowers like daisies. Use tall vases for tall flowers.


The size and shape of the container and arrangement also depends on it's intended use.
* Small arrangements like the Mound can be used on end tables or as accent pieces.
* Triangular arrangements are often used as altar centerpieces or as focal pieces along walls to add visual interest to the blank space.
* Asymmetrical arrangements work best in shallow containers and are often used as focal points in entryways, on mantels, and on the end of buffet tables.
* The Crescent is similar to the Asymmetrical arrangement. Low, oblong or oval containers are often used, and it is placed in similar locations to the Asymmetrical arrangements.
* The Hogarth Curve is an attention-grabber. it is often displayed prominently in tall vase or as a door or wall piece.


;Room furnishings: Use large arrangements for table center pieces. Use small arrangements for side or end tables. Flower colors should contrast with the wall colors.


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*Use dark flowers in front of light backgrounds.
*Use light flowers in front of dark backgrounds.
*Use large flowers as the center focus flowers in an arrangement.
*Use small flowers as filler flowers in an arrangement near the vase's edges. Use open flowers as the center focus flowers in an arrangement.
*Use partly open flowers as filler flowers in an arrangement near the vase's edges.
*Also, use large flowers to construct the primary angles and focal points.


<gallery>
File:Short arrangement1.jpg|Short Arrangement
File:Hogarth Curve.jpg|Hogarth Curve
</gallery>


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Short arrangements, generally small mound arrangements in baskets or short vases.
<gallery>
File:Table Decoration1.jpg
File:Table Decoration2.jpg
File:Table Decoration3.jpg
File:Table Decoration4.jpg
File:Table Decoration5.jpg
</gallery>


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Medium arrangements in baskets or bud vases, to be placed on a table or in an entry way.
<gallery>
File:House use1.jpg
File:House use2.jpg
File:House use3.jpg
File:House use4.jpg
File:House use5.jpg
</gallery>


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Large arrangements in vases or baskets, intended for display in public areas such as an office or a church foyer or sanctuary.
<gallery>
File:Public use1.jpg
File:Public use2.jpg
File:Public use3.jpg
File:Public use4.jpg
File:Public use5.jpg
File:Public use6.jpg
</gallery>


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Wildflowers that can be used include wild rose, daisy, blanket flowers, sunflowers and wild sweet peas. Use wildflowers whose sizes and colors complement each other.


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== Additional Information == 
The following information was not included in the honor requirements, but it should be.

===Tools for use with live flowers=== 
* Sharp pruners or a sharp knife.
* Five gallon bucket with water in it.
* Preservative (an easy one is 1 part sugar/3 parts water).
* Floral foam - can be soaked in water to help the flowers keep longer in an arrangement that will not take water. It is also a sturdy base with which to help position the flowers for an arrangement.

===Tools for use with silk flowers=== 
* Pliers
* Wire cutters
* Floral tape
* Floral wire
* Floral foam (dry) - It is a sturdy base with which to help position the flowers for an arrangement.

== References == 
<references/>
[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
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AY Honors/Felt Craft/Answer Key

2021-07-26T17:50:59Z

BoisSar:

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[[Image:Coarse Wool 40x.JPG|thumb|400px|Wool fiber under 40X magnification]]
Felt is made from wool. Wool hairs are covered with tiny scales (see photo) which cause them to interlock with one another. The scales on a wool fiber are similar to the scales on a pine cone.
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# Crafts
# Felt-tipped pens
# Interfacing (sewing)
# Hats
# Shoe insoles
# Polishing wheels
# Roofing felt
# Gloves
# Slippers
# Yurt walls (a yurt is a Mongolian home)
# Furniture pads
# Table covers
# Pool tables
# Gaskets
# Rugs
# Tents
# Clothing
# Textile art
# Drum cymbal stands to protect the cymbal from cracking
# Chair feet pads to protect the floor
# Pathfinder Honor Patches


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# Felt is inexpensive
# It can be made in any color, including white and bright colors
# It is durable
# Felt can be formed into any shape
# Felt can be easily cut
# Felt is easy to sew, and can accept fabric glue
# It is soft and pleasant to work with


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Felt is made by a process called wet felting, where the natural wool fiber is '''stimulated by friction''' and '''lubricated by moisture''' (usually water), and the fibers move at a 90 degree angle towards the friction source and then away again, in effect making little "tacking" stitches. Only 5% of the fibers are active at any one moment, but the process is continual, and so different 'sets' of fibers become activated and then deactivated in the continual process.


This "wet" process utilizes the inherent nature of wool and other animal hairs, because the hairs have scales on them which are directional. The hairs also have kinks in them, and this combination of scales (like the structure of a pine cone) are what react to the stimulation of friction and cause the phenomenon of felting. It tends to work well only with woolen fibers as their scales, when aggravated, bond together to form a cloth.


From the mid-17th to the mid-20th centuries, a process called "carroting" was used in the manufacture of good quality felt for making men's hats. Rabbit or hare skins were treated with a dilute solution of the mercury compound mercuric nitrate. The skins were dried in an oven when the thin fur at the sides went orange - carrot color. Pelts were stretched over a bar in a cutting machine and the skin sliced off in thin shreds, the fleece coming away entirely. The fur was blown onto a cone-shaped colander, treated with hot water to consolidate it, the cone peeled off and passed through wet rollers to cause the fur to felt. These 'hoods' were then dyed and blocked to make hats. This toxic solution and the vapors it produced resulted in widespread cases of mercury poisoning among hatters, which may have been the origin behind the phrase "mad as a hatter". The United States Public Health Service banned the use of mercury in the felt industry in December 1941.


-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
'''8 steps to make felt'''


1.
Start with raw wool. It can be straight off the animal without further processing or you can purchase carded wool off the internet or at craft shows. Any color will do.


2.
Assemble wool and liquid dish soap near a sink with running water or use a table top and a bowl of warm water.


3.
Pull a small amount of wool apart and fluff it up by continually pulling it apart. Set this pile of wool aside.


4.
Wet your hands with warm water and add a very small drop of liquid dish soap to your hands.


5.
Pick up the pile of wool and gently roll it between the palms of your hands to form a ball. As the wool begins to felt, press harder so it will stiffen even more.


6.
When the wool is firm, stop rolling and rinse with cold water.


7.
Press it in a towel to remove excess water.


8.
Allow the wool to air dry.


You can also watch this short video on how Mongolians make felt with traditional methods.


{{#widget:YouTube|id=FuoWHBnpujg}}


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This video shows how to make a pennant. A cover for a scrapbook is a very similar project.
{{#widget:YouTube|id=TFNGOTe1xn4}}


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There are lots of cute, fun, and interesting bookmarks you can make. Again, YouTube is your friend.


{{#widget:YouTube|id=qVlXXJMs5AE}}
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====Ladybug Bookmark==== 


# Materials: Red felt, black felt, two googlie eyes, thin black pipe clears, scrap cardboard (cereal box or pasta box weight), fabric glue, white glue, black marker
# Cut cardboard to width and length desired
# Wrap the cardboard in black felt. Glue on with white glue
# Cut red felt into a oval shape for the lady bug body
# Punch out or cut out 6 black spots
# With fabric glue attach the spots (or sew on)
# Add 6 legs (3 sets) with thin pipe cleaners on top of the black bookmark base and under the ladybug body
# With fabric glue (or sew) the lady bug body to the black felt bookmark, leaving a black square for the head area showing
# Trim the square top into the rounded head of the ladybug
# Mark the wings on with the black marker
# Set aside so the glue can dry


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Similar idea to the bookmark, but glue on a magnet instead.


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Directions for a heart shaped needle case. Remember to use two colors of felt.
{{#widget:YouTube|id=qI29EW3jk5c}}


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Here are some cute [http://brightappleblossom.blogspot.ca/2010/12/felt-finger-puppets.html felt finger puppets] (2 to 4 colors). There is a link to printable patterns from the page. These are similar in size and complexity to bookmarks and magnets.


What else can we say - go crazy with felt!


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This could be a nature or Biblical theme, or maybe felt the Pathfinder flag. You might also attach your mural to a notebook or photo album cover. Let your imagination go free and have fun.


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Here are some holiday presents from felt, felt ornaments and felt Christmas trees. These are just examples, so look around YouTube for ideas. Be sure to use four colors of felt as per the requirements.
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{{#widget:YouTube|id=-di8VMPUNec}}
{{#widget:YouTube|id=jkIy4sCw5Z8}}


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A good tutorial on making a [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tel25LlO2Ks| felt hand puppet] and directions for:
*[http://www.hobbycraft.co.uk/craft-idea/felt-monkey-hand-puppet/IDEA01347 Felt Monkey] (included template works for Parrot and Zebra or your creation)
*[http://www.hobbycraft.co.uk/craft-idea/felt-parrot-hand-puppet/IDEA01348 Felt Parrot]
*[http://www.hobbycraft.co.uk/craft-idea/felt-zebra-hand-puppet/IDEA01349 Felt Zebra]


Here is a much simpler hand puppet.
{{#widget:YouTube|id=SUD2Ln4O5ng}}


Making a puppet is also Requirement #1 of the [[Adventist_Youth_Honors_Answer_Book/Outreach/Puppetry|Puppetry honor]] so consider tackling both honors together.


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After the lady talks, she does show how to make some stockings for kitchen utensils. You could easily decorate these to include enough colors.
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A cute little hot chocolate cup out of felt. Don't use it for actual hot chocolate though.
{{#widget:YouTube|id=8hiYB9GuXWE}}


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Here are some stuffed animals (or puppets if you prefer)
{{#widget:YouTube|id=wXG25eTLHX8}}


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Some cute baby decoration stuffed animal toys from felt.
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Good beginner project.
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Here is a video on making a bag with felt.
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A simple way to make a felt beanbag that looks cool is to take 6 large squares of 6 different bright colors of felt and stitch them together into a cube. Build it inside out, stitching on a sewing machine until you are near the end. Than turn it right side out, fill with beans, rice, or lentils and hand stitch it closed.


Here is another take on [http://www.purlbee.com/the-purl-bee/2009/3/16/wool-felt-jelly-beans.html felt bean bags].


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==References== 
* Wikipedia article on [[w:Felt|Felt]]
Plenty of different [http://americanfeltandcraft.wordpress.com/ felt crafts]
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AY Honors/Braiding - Advanced/Requirements

2021-04-18T18:44:10Z

BoisSar:

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<b>1. <section begin=req1 /><noinclude><translate></noinclude>Have the Braiding Honor.
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<b>2. <section begin=req2 /><noinclude><translate></noinclude>Make a six- or eight-strand zipper pull or key chain.
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<b>3. <section begin=req3 /><noinclude><translate></noinclude>Make a six- or eight-strand zipper pull or key chain showing zigzag technique by reversing direction of braid, or make a project showing the three-part inside or trick braid.
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<b>4. <section begin=req4 /><noinclude><translate></noinclude>Do one of the following:
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:<b>a. <section begin=req4a /><noinclude><translate></noinclude>Six-strand lanyard
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:<b>b. <section begin=req4b /><noinclude><translate></noinclude>Bookmark using at least six strands
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:<b>c. <section begin=req4c /><noinclude><translate></noinclude>Four-strand dog leash using twine or wire for a core to braid around
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<b>5. <section begin=req5 /><noinclude><translate></noinclude>Know how to start and end all projects.
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AY Honors/Braiding/Requirements

2021-04-08T01:34:30Z

BoisSar:

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<b>1. <section begin=req1 /><noinclude><translate>
</noinclude>Make a three-strand braid, using hair, rope, or cord.
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</noinclude>Make a zipper pull or a key chain using the four-strand round or square braid.
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</noinclude>Make a four-strand round braid lanyard.
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</noinclude>Know how to start and end all projects.
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AY Honors/Bread Dough/Answer Key

2021-03-09T22:02:16Z

BoisSar: Radio Shack no longer exists.

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|honorname=Bread Dough
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|category=Arts and Crafts
|authority=General Conference
|insignia=Bread-Dough.png
}}

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Dough made by mixing:
* 1 ½ cups white flour
* 1 ½ cups salt
* 1 tablespoon oil
* about ½ cups water (or a bit more) This turns out much like Play-Doh brand dough..


If dough becomes too sticky just add more flour. Use hand lotion to reduce stickness. Note this is just one of many possible recipes. Different dough recipes yield different effects.


Making the dough:
# Measuring cup and tablespoon
# Mixing bowl
# Stir stick or spoon


Shaping and tinting the dough:
# Hand lotion
# Cookie Cutters and Rolling Pin (Optional)
# Knife
# Wax Paper (for working on, placing pieces on)
# Aluminum Foil
# 18 gauge Wire
# Other items to transfer texture to the dough like a leaf with veins and a net. Look around for interesting textures.
# Food coloring or dye


Coloring and finishing the dough:
# Liquid Tempera Paint or Acrylic Paint
# 8 oz. kit Envirotex Lite which is a water clear reactive polymer compound. It cures to a thick, glossy coating in about 8 hours at 70°F, and reaches full strength and toughness in about 48 hours. This durable, resilient material requires no polishing to produce a high gloss. One coat is all that is usually required for a deep attractive finish, however, two or more coats maybe applied one over the other by simply wiping the surface with a clean cloth and alcohol prior to re-coating. Recommended
# Paint Brushes
# Cardboard Box or other container for storing and transporting your creations while they dry

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The dough will pick up any dirt you may have on your hands.
The lotion keeps your hands from sticking to the dough, making it easier to handle.

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Tinting dough is accomplished by mixing color into the dough while it is still wet. This is done by adding dye or food coloring to get the desired color. You can mix the dye into the dough thoroughly, or you can leave streaks of color for effect. You can also partially mix colors into the dough to get it to fade from blue to green to yellow (or some other transition).


Painting is done after the dough has dried. The object can be painted a solid color or with various designs, much as an artist would paint a canvas. Except in this case ''you'' are the artist and the dough is the canvas!

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After your art has dried and has been painted, you can coat it with a clear gloss finish such as Envirotex Lite. This will give it a clean glossy look and will help protect it. Clear gloss finishes should be available at your local art store.

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The best model for a flower is the real thing. Pick up a few flowers before you begin this honor and have your Pathfinders study them. Have them consider the shape of each individual petal, the calyx, the stem, and the leaves and encourage them to reproduce that in dough. If live flowers are not available, try working from photographs.


You may find it easier to use small containers, as this will facilitate small flowers. You may also wish to fill the container with large glass beads or marbles once the flowers have been inserted. The extra weight afforded by the marbles will help prevent the container from tipping over.


Check Google Image Search for [https://www.google.ca/search?q=bread+dough+flower&safe=off&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=odieUfLqFca_igLw5YCoDQ&ved=0CAoQ_AUoAQ&biw=1517&bih=741#safe=off&tbm=isch&sa=1&q=bread+dough+flower&oq=bread+dough+flower&gs_l=img.12...0.0.0.5339.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0..0.0...0.0.0..1c..12.img.Xaz254J0Kfc&bav=on.2,or.r_qf.&bvm=bv.47008514,d.cGE&fp=8fa65819b976fa24&biw=1517&bih=741 photos of bread dough flowers] - there are some amazing examples out there.


Step by step guide with photos for [http://craftaworld.blogspot.ca/2011/01/dough-flowers.html bread dough flowers and leaves]. Some good ideas for imprinting the leaves (use a real leaf with prominent veins) and simple items like nets to give texture.


Here are flowers made from [http://www.cantstopmakingthings.com/2012/07/bread-to-be-flowers.html baked bread dough] (a different approach worth trying).

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A sculpture arrangement is a small scene on a base. Roll out a piece of dough to an even thickness and cut it into a defined shape for the base. Then make miniature models to place in the scene. Here are a few ideas:
* Dinner plate with food, or a place setting with plate, knife, forks, glass, etc.
* Wishing well.
* Person in a chair reading a book.
* Praying hands (better if they lie flat than if they stand erect).
* Cars at an intersection.
* Dog and doghouse.
* Or whatever you think of!


A dinner plate or a piece of scrap cardboard makes a good base and allows you to move your scupture away from your work area to dry.

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For this, you may wish to roll a piece of dough out into a flat sheet with even thickness, and then use a knife (or a cookie cutter) to cut out the plaque. Then you can use a different color of dough and apply it to the surface of the plaque to make the design of your choosing.

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You will need strong glue and magnets. Magnets are available in craft stores or at hobby shops. A five-minute epoxy may be the best type of glue for this project, as it will adhere well to both the magnet and the dough. Press the magnet into the dough while it is still wet, but remove it before painting. You can glue it into the cavity after painting. It may help to add a coat of clear gloss finish after attaching the magnet, as this will help hold the magnet in place.

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You can use regular safety pins or buy blank pins at a craft store. The blanks sold at craft stores resemble the pins Pathfinders receive when they are invested in their AY classes, or the pins that are traded at camporees, except the display side is totally blank and smooth.


Safety pins can be embedded within the dough while it is still wet - just make sure that it will be able to open once the dough sets. Store-bought blank pins have a smooth finish and should be attached in the same way as described for magnets above.

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This is your opportunity to show your creativity. Let your imagination run free.

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==References== 


[http://eti-usa.com/envirotex-lite/ envirotex manufacturer info]
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AY Honors/Braiding/Answer Key

2021-03-09T21:53:43Z

BoisSar:

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{{honor_desc
|stage=100
|honorname=Braiding
|skill=1
|year=1972
|category=Arts and Crafts
|authority=General Conference
|insignia=Braiding.png
}}


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[[File:Braid StepBystep.jpg|thumb|500px|Step-by-step sequence for making a three-strand braid]]
To make a three strand braid we start with the picture on the upper left, and proceed clockwise.


*Move the blue strand from the right to the center, bringing us to the second picture.
*Move the black strand from the left to the center, bringing us to the third picture.
*Move the red strand from the right to the center, bringing us to the fourth picture.
*Move the blue strand from the left to the center, bringing us to the fifth picture.
*Move the black strand from the right to the center, bringing us to the sixth picture.
*Move the red strand from the left to the center, bringing us to the seventh picture which has the strands in the same order as the first.


The sequence of left-to-center, right-to-center, left-to-center, right-to-center repeats until the braider reaches the end of the strands or decides to quit.


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[[File:Starting a braid.png|thumb|700px|How to get started on a four-strand round or square braid.]]
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This is an easy project that does not take very much time. To start, you will need: a keyring or other ring/fastener, and two strands of gimp (flat, plastic string), each strand about 3-4 feet long.


Fold each strand in half and thread through the ring/fastener. Then begin braiding.


*Step 1: Cross over two strands that are opposite each other (see illustration).
*Step 2: Thread the cross-strands through: "over 1, under 1".
*Step 3: Pull tight


Repeat until the zipper pull or key chain reaches the desired length (4-5 inches).
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[[File:Four strand braid.png|thumb|500px|How to braid using four strands.]]
[[File:Hanger wrap.png|thumb|600px|How to do a four-strand braid around a hanger.]]
First, you must learn to do the four strand braid, sometimes called the lanyard braid (not the round or square braid). The way to remember this is "under 2, over 1." Follow the illustration.


To make a hanger cover, just do this braid ''around'' the hanger.
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[[File:lanyard.png|thumb|600px|How to make an adjustable lanyard with a four-strand braid.]]
Follow the instructions for a four-strand braid from requirement 3 above, starting with two 8-9 foot strands folded in half. At the end, start doing a square braid around the first part, forming a loop. This can be adjusted when you are done.
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==References== 
[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
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AY Honors/Block Printing/Answer Key

2021-03-09T21:44:35Z

BoisSar:

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{{honor_desc
|stage=100
|honorname=Block Printing
|skill=2
|year=1945
|category=Arts and Crafts
|authority=General Conference
|insignia=Block-Printing.png
}}

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[[Image:Intaglio-rollers.JPG|thumb|200px|A variety of brayers]]
;Block: The ''block'' is a piece of material into which the design to be printed is carved. Linoleum is a common block material, but people also use wood, or even potatoes. Linoleum is inexpensive, easy to carve, and makes good prints. Wood is more difficult to work with, and potatoes do not make the greatest prints. Also, you can't really save a potato, as it will begin to decompose as soon as it is cut. Linoleum can be put away for several years and then reused. A [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HQhntptX_dE new technique] uses hobby foam sheets glued to Styrofoam or some other base, which allows you to carve the image without reversing it. Another easy to work with block material is lightweight foam (perhaps from recycled fast food take out containers) as used in [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3VeRZ5UAwFo this video].
;Sandpaper: If you are using linoleum or wood, you will need to sand the surface first to eliminate the texturing. Texturing will come through in your print, which may or may not be desired.
;Ink or Paint: Many people prefer to use oil-based ink, but beware - oil-based inks will permanently stain clothing. If you are teaching this honor to a group of children, you would be well advised to stick with water soluble ink. For different effects you can use water soluable paints.
;Brayer: A brayer is a hand roller used in printmaking techniques to spread ink or to offset an image from a plate to paper. They can be made of rubber, sponge, acrylic, or leather. Rubber brayers come in varieties of hardness and are primarily used for relief printing. Leather rollers are only used in lithography. Sponge rollers are used only for scrapbooking and other craft applications. A spoon can stand in for the brayer.
;Piece of Glass: Ink is poured onto a piece of glass, and then the brayer is rolled over it. This transfers the ink to the brayer. An old picture frame can work well for this.
;Paper or fabric: Your design must be printed on ''something'', right?
;Baren: The baren is a disk like device with a flat bottom and on the reverse side, a knotted handle. The baren is used to burnish (firmly rub) the paper to pick up ink that has been rolled onto a wood. linoleum, or hobby foam cut. You can also use a wooden spoon, soup spoon or even a rolling pin for this.
;Carbon paper: Optional item for transferring traced images to the linoleum
;Paper towels: For cleaning up!

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The most confusing aspect of block printing letters is that the letters must be carved into the block as a mirror-image. When the block is pressed to the paper, the image will be reversed, and the letter will look proper. The saying ''"watch your p's and q's"'' comes from the fact that a ''p'' looks like a ''q'', and a ''q'' looks like a ''p'' when viewing the type (whether movable type, or letters carved into a block).


The design to be printed must be carved into the block, or more specifically, the ''negative'' part of the design must be carved out. In other words, every part of the design that you wish to appear in the final product must be left intact in the block. Everything that you wish to ''not'' appear in the final product must be carved out of the block.


For multi-color prints, you will need a block for each color. All the red parts of the design are left intact, and the non-red parts are carved away. Repeat for other colors. When printing, pay close attention to the block's ''registration'' - that is, that each color block is correctly lined up. Once an inked block touches the paper, it's too late to make an adjustment.


For your initial prints, it is best to avoid highly detailed designs. Start with one color, and use large shapes. As your skills improve, you may include greater and greater detail and incorporate multiple colors.

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Remember to reverse the letters and to put your first initial on the ''right'' side of the potato, and your last initial on the ''left''.


First cut the potato in half. The cut must be straight, so use a large knife for this, and cut it with one smooth motion. Your initials will be carved into the freshly cut surface, so it needs to be as flat as possible.


Using a sharp knife (a paring knife, pocket knife, X-acto knife, etc...) mark out the letters. Make vertical incisions into the potato to mark out the boundaries of the letters. Once this is done, you can move in from the side and carve off the negative spaces. For spaces inside the letters (such as the middle portion of an ''A'' or an ''O'' you will need to angle the knife down and pop out a portion of the hole. Then try it again from the other side.


Once you have all of the negative space removed, roll some ink onto your potato and press it firmly to a sheet of paper. Do not move the potato once it touches the paper, except to press it more firmly into the paper, or to lift it straight off. Any side-to-side motion will smear the print.

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For this, we highly recommend that you use linoleum for the printing block. As you should well know from your experience with the previous requirement, potato printing leaves a lot to be desired.


Avoid the heavy use of lettering. Letters are ''hard'', and you can write a note onto your greeting card once you have printed it. Images of trees, flowers, and animals on the other hand do not suffer from accidental image reversal as letters do. Long strings of text are also difficult to keep aligned.


Once you have chosen a design, follow these steps:
# Sand your piece of linoleum until it is smooth. Start with coarse grade sand paper (80 grit), follow that with finer grade (100 grit), and finally, use an even finer grade paper (120 grit).
# Draw your design on a piece of paper, and then transfer it to the piece of linoleum. If you draw the design in pencil, you may be able to transfer it by placing it face-down on the linoleum, and then tracing over the back, being sure to use plenty of pressure and covering every line, stroke, and dot. You can also draw your design directly onto the linoleum, but you must remember to draw it in reverse!
# Now you are ready to begin carving. Use a set of carving gouges for this, and always cut ''away'' from your hands and fingers. Do not cut too deeply. Remove all the negative space from the design, and be careful to leave the positive space intact. Once you cut it - it is gone.
# Once the linoleum has been carved, pour a small amount of ink onto the piece of glass. Then roll the brayer over the ink. Be sure to roll it in only one direction, not back and forth. If you roll it back and forth, you will not move the ink around. Instead, roll it forward, pick it up, pull it back towards yourself, and roll it forward again.
# Coat the linoleum with a thin layer of ink. Then coat it again. Several thin coats are better than one thick, gloppy coat.
# Place your blank greeting card (don't fold it until after it has been printed!) face up on your work surface. Then carefully place the inked surface of the block on it without moving it from side-to-side. Apply even pressure using the brayer, rolling pin, or the back of a wooden spoon. Be careful not to move the linoleum with respect to the paper at this point!
# Carefully lift the block from the paper and admire your results (or try again).

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Follow the procedure outlined in the previous requirement. A bookplate is a small piece of paper that is glued to the inside cover of a book to identify the owner. This obviously will require you to print some text, as that's the only way most of us write our names. A book cover should have the book's title as well as the author's name. It should be large enough to cover the outside of the book.

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This could be a poster, another greeting card, another bookplate, another book cover, or whatever you would like to make. Repeating a carved pattern, while rotating it and/or changing the color can can create art work worth framing.


This requirement should be saved for last - it's your masterpiece!

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==References== 
* Wikipedia articles
** [[w:Brayer|Brayer]]
** [[w:Baren|Baren]]
* How to resources
** [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kE3Uuhylur0 Good How to Video on block printing]
** [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HQhntptX_dE Much easier way to block print] with hobby foam.
** [http://lizzyhouse.typepad.com/lizzyhouse/2008/08/block-print-tutorial.html Block print tutorial]
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AY Honors/Airplane Modeling/Answer Key

2021-03-09T21:42:02Z

BoisSar:

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{{honor_desc
|stage=100
|honorname=Airplane Modeling
|skill=1
|year=1944
|category=Arts and Crafts
|authority=General Conference
|reqpdf=Airplane_Modeling_Requirements.pdf
|insignia=Airplane-Modeling.png
}}

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Many kits are available for building that will meet this requirement.

=== [http://www.sigmfg.com/ SIG Manufacturing] is a major supplier. === 


To help you navigate, SIG uses the following shorthand on their website.


;F/F: Free flight
;C/L: Control line
;R/C: Remote control


;BIY: Build it yourself
;ARF: Almost ready to fly
;RTF: Ready to Fly


Some possible models from SIG include:

==== [http://www.sigmfg.com/images/yy1SIGFF5.jpg AMA Cub] ==== 


This model has been also called "Delta Dart" and has been sold by SIG for beginner modelers since 1968. Designed by Frank Ehling, these can be built by even younger modelers with little or no experience. Rubber band powered, the wing covering paper is pre-printed with markings to show where to glue the wood pieces. Kit includes everything you need except some glue. Likely the most cost effective model for club purposes as well.


Ask your local hobby shop if they stock this model, or order from SIG.

==== [http://www.sigmfg.com/images/yy1SIGFF12.jpg Thermal Dart] ==== 


Basically a larger version of the AMA Cub.


As built by a Pathfinder.


[[Image:Sig 01 450.jpg]]

==== [http://www.sigmfg.com/images/yy1SIGFF15.jpg SIG Parasol] ==== 


Easy to build like a cub, this model looks a little more like a scale airplane.

==== [http://www.sigmfg.com/images/yy1SIGFF1.jpg SIG Cub] ==== 


This model is more challenging to build than the AMA Cub, or Thermal Dart. The wing includes airfoil shape, and dihedral angle for stability. This model would be better suited for either older modelers or modelers with some experience already. A nice rubber band powered free flight model.

=== [http://www.guillow.com/ Guillow's] is also a major supplier. === 


Some possible models from Guillow's include:

==== [http://www.guillow.com/cadet.aspx Cadet] ==== 


A simple to build rubber band powered model.

==== [http://www.guillow.com/cloudbuster.aspx Cloud Buster] ==== 


Similar to the SIG Cub. This model has airfoil wing, and dihedral angle as well.

==== [http://www.guillow.com/flyboy.aspx Fly Boy] ==== 


This model involves more skill and work with its built up (3D) fuselage. Still a fairly simple model, this kit will involve a larger time commitment, and a bit more skill. An experienced modeler to help instruct would be an asset for this kit.

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=== [http://www.sigmfg.com/ SIG Manufacturing] is a major supplier. ===


See the shorthand help above to navigate their site.


A possible glider model from SIG is:

==== [http://www.sigmfg.com/images/yy1SIGFF14.jpg Flip] ==== 


This model is a nice free flight glider kit. It does not technically meet the needs of this requirement since the plans call for the wing to be in a fixed location. This does not allow the modeler to observe its flying characteristics as related to variable positions of the wings. With a bit of spare balsa and some simple modifications, this glider can be built with movable wings.


Flip with modified wing mount.


[[Image:Flip 01 450.jpg]]

=== [http://www.guillow.com/ Guillow's] is also a major supplier. === 


Almost all of their toy balsa gliders would qualify for this requirement since they all have the ability to adjust the wings forward or back. Some possible models include:

==== [http://www.guillow.com/f-15eagle.aspx Eagle] ==== 


Very basic balsa glider.

==== [http://www.guillow.com/jetfirebalsaglider.aspx Jetfire] ==== 


Similar to Eagle, with a wider wingspan and dihedral angle.

=== Do It Yourself "Penny Glider" plans. === 


Due to an ordering mix-up with our glider kit supplier, our club was forced to get creative to meet the glider requirement in this Airplane Modeling honor. The end result was that I designed a glider that could be made from stock pieces of balsa. The glider flew well for the students who made them, and the plans made for very cost effective kits. I found the most efficient way to use balsa sheets is to make 12 glider kits. I am publishing the plans here in the hope that other youth groups can make good use of them.


Penny Glider as built by a Pathfinder.


[[Image:Penny 01 450.jpg]]

==== Stock pieces required. ==== 


One set of the following pieces will create twelve glider kits.


* (3) 3" X 36" X 1/16" sheet
* (4) 1/8" X 3/8" X 36"
* (1) 1/8" X 1/8" X 36"

==== Other required supplies. ==== 


Wood glue / Hobby knifes


Ruler (Metal is best)


Water based sanding sealer - (I used Varathane Crystal Clear Waterborne thinned 50% with water)


150 grit sandpaper


Pencil / Hobby paint brushes


12 Pennies


Hot glue gun and glue


One copy of plan page printed for each student.


[[Image:Glider Stock.jpg]]

==== Make the kits in advance ==== 


Cut the pieces from the stock to the sizes shown in the plan. Use a hobby knife and steel ruler.


Fuselage - Cut the ⅛” x ⅜” stock into 12” long sections to make 12 fuselages.


Wings - Cut 6 pieces 11” x 1½” from 2 of the 1/16” sheets to make 12 wings.


Wing Mounts - Cut ⅛” x ⅛” stock into 12 - 2½ ” sections.


Wing Mounts – Cut 24 - ¼” x 2½ ” parts for wing mounts from 1/16" sheet balsa.


Horizontal Stabilizer – Cut 12 - 3½” x 3/4” horizontal stabilizers from 1/16" sheet balsa.


Vertical Stabilizer - Cut 12 - 1½” x 1” vertical stabilizers from 1/16" sheet balsa.


(ensure grain runs the long direction on all 1/16" sheet balsa pieces)


Optionally cut the tapered notches in the fuselage for the horizontal stabilizer, or leave this step for the students depending on level of students ability with hobby knifes.


[[Image:Glider kits.jpg]]


Each kit will contain one wing, one fuselage, one horizontal stabilizer, one vertical stabilizer, and the wing mounting pieces. One single kit is pictured below.


[[Image:Glider kit.jpg]]

==== Have the students follow steps 1 through 8 to build the kits. ==== 


Instructions:


# Cut out all pieces.
# Seal and sand all pieces
# Assemble wing mount
# Glue wing to mount
# Mount stabilizers
# Use elastics to mount wing on fuselage
# Add penny to nose for weight, (use hot glue) and adjust wings front to back for best flight.
# Add cardstock ailerons, rudder, and elevators if wanted.


The following pictures are provided for reference.


Wing and wing mount:


[[Image:Glider Wing Mount.jpg]]


Stabilizers glued to fuselage:


[[Image:Glider Stabilizers.jpg]]


Wing mounting with elastic bands:


[[Image:Glider Wing Elastics.jpg]]


Finished Glider:


[[Image:Glider Done.jpg]]

====Plan Page.==== 


[[Image:Glider Plan Page.jpg]]

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[http://fatlion.com/science/paperairplanes.html Paper Plane] with airfoil wings is a fun paper airplane to build. It requires more than simply folding a piece of paper up, and can be used to teach the concept of Bernoulli's Principle.


[http://www.dacbsa.org/Resources-DACWorkshop/Resources-Space.htm Boy Scout Paper Plane plans] include many creative and fun paper airplane plans.


[http://www.funpaperairplanes.com Fun Paper Airplanes] Videos and downloads of paper airplanes


[http://www.10paperairplanes.com 10 Paper Airplanes] Paper Airplane instructions on various airplanes

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The elongated body or frame of an airplane, any kind of frame or body. The central body of an airplane that is designed to accommodate the crew and passengers (or cargo).

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Any surface used primarily for supporting an airplane inflight by forward motion.

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Ailerons are movable control surfaces that are present on the trailing edge of both the right and left wings of a plane. Each surface moves in opposite directions enabling a plane to roll right or left. For a plane to roll to the left, the left wing aileron moves upwards while the aileron on the right wing moves downwards.

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This is the term used to describe the part of the tail that moves back and forth. This movement causes the tail of a plane to move which then turns the plane.

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The horizontal "mini wing" at the tail section of the airplane. The elevator is attached to the horizontal stabilizer with hinges.

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A diagonal brace going from the fuselage to the bottom of the wing consisting of a bar or rod used to support the wing on the airplane.

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Compartment where the pilot sits while flying the aircraft.

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The source of power to turn the propeller or turbines and generate thrust. Can be an internal combustion engine, jet engine, or in the case of an airplane model a rubber band engine.

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An undercarriage that supports the weight of the plane when it is on the ground.

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The mechanical device attached to the engine that rotates to push against air and create thrust.

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Dihedral is where the right and left wing tips are higher than the fuselage. More dihedral generally means that a plane will be more stable in the air, but will be more difficult to turn. Most planes require a bit of dihedral to fly well.

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Elevator is the term used to describe a plane's horizontal control surface on the tail. This surface enables a plane to pitch upwards or downwards. When an elevator surface moves upwards, the tail moves downwards (the nose of the plane then points up) and vice-versa. Without an elevator, it is hard to control the altitude of a plane as you can't control the rise and fall of the nose of the plane.

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The mechanical force generated by the engine to move the airplane through the air.

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The vertical fin which is part of the tail assembly of the airplane. The rudder is attached to the vertical stabilizer with a hinge.

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V-Tail aircraft are planes that have only 2 stabilization surfaces (in the shape of a V) instead of a conventional horizontal and vertical stabilizers. In a V-Tail aircraft, the 2 control surfaces of the V-Tail work together to give elevator and rudder responses.

=== Illustration of Model airplane parts. === 


[[Image:Airplane parts.jpg]]

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== References ==

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AY Honors/Aboriginal Lore/Answer Key

2021-03-09T21:40:15Z

BoisSar:

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{{honor_desc
|stage=100
|honorname=Aboriginal Lore
|skill={{GetSkillLevel|page={{{page|{{BASEPAGENAME}}}}}}}
|year={{GetHonorYear|page={{{page|{{BASEPAGENAME}}}}}}}
|category={{GetHonorCategory|page={{{page|{{BASEPAGENAME}}}}}}}
|authority={{GetHonorAuthority|page={{{page|{{BASEPAGENAME}}}}}}}
|insignia={{GetHonorInsignia|page={{{page|{{BASEPAGENAME}}}}}}}
}}


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Aborigines are the Indigenous people who occupied the continent of Australia. Estimates of the number of tribes at the commencement of European colonization vary from 250 to 700.


Their origin is not known with any certainty, with some scientists contending that they arrived in one wave from Southeast Asia, and others contending that they arrived in two waves: one from Indonesia and another from Papua New Guinea.


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Australian Aboriginal kinship is the system of law governing social interaction, particularly marriage, in traditional Aboriginal culture. It is an integral part of the culture of every Aboriginal group across Australia.


The main element is the division of clans within the same language group into skin groups, or moieties. In its simplest form, clans are divided into two skin groups. There may be four divisions, while more complex systems can be divided into eight.


The system dictates who may marry whom – it is always taboo to marry into your own skin group – creating strong incest avoidance laws and strong bonds across clans. While it can be determined at birth who will marry whom, love marriages were not uncommon, so long as they were within the skin system.


During drought or lack of resources, having cousins and skin sisters and brothers in other clans can be invaluable. It also creates obligations to care for those people in their time of need. Even in traditional ball games, teams were divided along these lines.


Each skin group has certain totems associated with it. Some Aboriginal groups, such as the Yolngu, include plants, animals and all aspects of the environment, as part of their respective skin groups.


A person of the same skin group, of the same generation, is called "brother" or "sister". There are names for maternal aunts and uncles and different names for paternal aunts and uncles. Additionally, there are strong avoidance relationships that need to be observed based on this system.


Totems are the link the Indigenous Australians have with the land. When given a totem, the person is to look after it and care for its survival. For example, if a person's totem is a wombat, that person cannot eat it, and must protect it as it is his spiritual link to the land.
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Indigenous Australian peoples traditionally classified food sources in a methodical way. Various groups categorized them differently, so it is not possible to present a definitive list of food types, so we present an example here.


In Central Australia, people used innovative means to obtain a balanced diet.


The food categories, and their Arrernte names are:


:{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor=#efefef
!Arrernte name
!Foods
!Examples
|-
|'''''Kere'''''
|food from animals; meat, fat, offal, blood, eggs
|''Kere arlewatyerre'' (goanna), ''Kere ulkerte'' (perentie), ''Kere arntetherrke'' (carpet snake), ''Kere aherre'' (kangaroo), ''Kere antenhe'' (possum), ''Kere inape'' (porcupine (echidna), ''Kere ankerre'' (emu).
|-
|'''''Merne'''''
|food from plants; fruit, vegetables
|''Merne atwakeye'' (wild orange), ''Merne arrutnenge'' (wild passionfruit), ''Merne pmerlpe'' (quandong), ''Merne mwanyeme'' (bush tomato), ''Merne arnweketye'' (conkerberry), ''Merne alangkwe'' (bush banana), ''Merne arlatyeye'' (pencil yam).
|-
|'''''Ntange''''' (''Merne ntange'')
|edible seeds
|''Merne ntange ulyawe'' (Pigweed seed), ''Merne ntange arlepe'' (Prickly wattle seed), ''Merne ntange artetye'' (Mulga seed), ''Merne ntange arlketyerre'' (Dead finish seed).
|-
|'''''Tyape'''''
|edible grubs and insects; witchetty grub, cicadas,
|''Tyape atnyematye'' (Witchetty grub), ''Tyape ahernenge'' (River red gum grub), ''Tyape ankerrutne'' (Coolibah tree grub), ''Tyape tyerraye'' (Cicadas), ''Tyape ayepe-arenye'' (Tar vine caterpillars).
|-
|'''''Ngkwarle (Australian Aboriginal sweet foods)'''''
|honey-like foods; nectar, wild honey, lerps, gum
|''Ngkwarle athenge arlperle'' (Ironwood tree gum), ''Ngkwarle alkerampwe'' (Mulga tree gum, ''Ngkwarle arlperrampwe'' (Whitewood tree gum, ''Ngkwarle atnyerampwe'' (Supplejack tree gum), ''Ngkwarle akikarre'' (Witchetty bush gum), ''Ngkwarle aperarnte'' (River Red gum honeydew, ''Ngkwarle yerrampe'', (Honeyant), ''Ngkwarle arwengalkere'' (Native bee honey), Ngkwarle untyeyampe (Corkwood flower nectar).
|}

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====Witchetty Grub==== 
The Witchetty grub was a staple among women and children. It was obtained thusly:

* Find cracks in the ground underneath a Witchetty bush (Acacia kempeana) and dig there
* Lever up swollen root where the grubs are located
* Eat grubs raw or cooked in hot earth
====Collecting Seeds==== 
Seeds varied depending on the time of year and the area in Australia that the people lived. In Central Australia, native millet (''Panicum decompositum''; ''Panicum australianse'') and spinifex were commonly used. Wattleseed could also be used in the flour mix.


Women harvested the fully ripe, dry seeds of the plant by beating the grass (or pod-laden trees with sticks in the case of wattleseed) to dislodge the seeds. Some species were eaten at the green stage and, when ground, would produce a juice at the side of the millstone, which was drunk directly.


In the Kimberley region of Western Australia, women observed that, after the dry season, many seeds would be gathered around the opening of ants' nests. The ants had effectively collected and husked the seed for them, and they were able to collect this seed, making their job a lot easier. After allowing the grain to dry, they could begin to prepare the flour.


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Various traditional methods of processing and cooking are used. Toxic seeds, such as Cycas media and Moreton Bay chestnut are processed to remove the toxins and render them safe to eat. Many foods are also baked in the hot campfire coals, or baked for several hours in ground ovens. ‘Paperbark’, the bark of Melaleuca species, is widely used for wrapping food placed in ground ovens. Bush bread was made by women using many types of seeds, nuts and corns to process a flour or dough to make bread.


After the grain was collected, it needed to be winnowed, which was done using the coolamon, the multi-purpose carrying vessel. Sometimes it needed to be winnowed several times.


Once the grain was winnowed, it was ground using a millstone, to create flour. The flour was then mixed with water to make a dough and placed in hot ashes for baking. The results could be small buns, today referred to as johnny cakes, or a large loaf, known today as damper. Damper appears to be a mix of this traditional style of bread-making and European-style bread-making.


The dough could also be eaten raw. Cooking was a good way to prepare the bread if the group was about to travel for some time.
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[[Image:Indig1.jpg|thumb|250px|A 19th century engraving showing Aboriginal people and humpy]]


A humpy is a small, temporary shelter made from bark and tree branches, traditionally used by Australian Aborigines, with a standing tree usually used as the main support. The word ''humpy'' comes from the Jagara language (a Murri people from Coorparoo in Brisbane); other language groups would have different names for the structure.


The word humpy was adopted by early white settlers, and now forms part of the Australian lexicon. Small impermanent dwellings, made of branches and bark (particularly paperbark) were built prior to the construction of more permanent buildings, and were referred to as humpies.


It is sometimes called a lean-to, since it can rely on the tree for support.


In South Australia, such a shelter is known as a "wurley" (also spelled "wurlie"), possibly from the Kaurna language. The name "gunya" is also used.


The Aborigines were a nomadic people, moving from place to place as the foods upon which they depended came into and went out of season. They did not typically stay in a given vicinity for a long period of time, and thus, it was not their habit to create permanent structures.


Young boys and men slept near the fire at night, while the young girls slept inside with their mothers.
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===Communication with other tribes=== 
A message stick is a form of communication traditionally used by the Aborigines. It is usually a solid piece of wood, around 20–30cm in length, etched with angular lines and dots.


Traditionally, message sticks were passed between different clans and language groups to establish information and transmit messages. They were often used to invite neighbouring groups to corroborees, set-fights and ball games.


Alfred Howitt wrote of the Wurundjeri people of the Melbourne area:


:''The oldest man (Headman) having made such a message stick hands it to the old man nearest to him, who inspects it and, if necessary, adds further marks and gives corresponding instructions. Finally, the stick having passed from one to the other of the old men present is handed to the messenger, who has received his verbal message in connection with it.''


They are often commonly called letters by Aboriginal people. They were transmitted by mailmen, who could travel hundreds of kilometres to deliver them.

===Signals within the tribe=== 
Many Australian Aboriginal cultures have or traditionally had a sign language counterpart to their spoken language. This appears to be connected with various taboos on speech between certain people within the community or at particular times, such as during a mourning period for women or during initiation ceremonies for men – unlike indigenous sign languages elsewhere which have been used as a lingua franca (Plains Indian Sign Language), or due to a high incidence of hereditary deafness in the community (Yucatec Maya Sign Language, Adamorobe Sign Language and Kata Kolok).


Sign languages appear to be most developed in areas with the most extensive speech taboos: the central desert (particularly among the Warlpiri and Warumungu), and western Cape York. Complex gestural systems have also been reported in the southern, central, and western desert regions, the Gulf of Carpentaria (including north-east Arnhem Land and the Tiwi Islands), some Torres Strait Islands, and the southern regions of the Fitzmaurice and Kimberley areas. Evidence for sign languages elsewhere is slim, although they have been noted as far south as the south coast (Jaralde Sign Language) and there are even some accounts from the first few years of the 20th century of the use of signs by people from the south west coast. However, many of these sign languages are now extinct, and very few accounts have recorded any detail.

===Tjuringa=== 
A Tjuringa is an object of religious significance by Central Australian Indigenous Australian people of the Arrernte (Aranda, Arunta) groups. Tjuringa often had a wide and indeterminate native significance, they included: Sacred ceremonies, Stone Objects, Wooden sacred objects, Bullroarers, Sacred ground paintings, Ceremonial poles, Ceremonial head gear, Sacred chants, Sacred earth mounds.


Generally speaking, tjuringa denote sacred stone or wooden objects possessed by private or group owners together with the legends, chants, and ceremonies associated with them. They were present among the Arunta, the Loritja, the Kaitish, the Unmatjera, and the Illpirra. These items are generally oblong pieces of polished stone or wood. Some of these items have hair or string strung through it and were named “bull roarers" by Europeans. Upon each tjuruiga is a totem of the group to which it belongs. Tjuringa are highly sacred, in fact, they are considered so sacred that only a few were able to see them and likewise it is considered sacrilegious to post a picture of them.


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===Articles of Trade=== 
<gallery>
File:Melo melo 01 by Line1.JPG|Baler shells (''Melo melo'')
File:OcherQuarry Rustrel.jpg|Ochre, a mineral used as a pigment
File:Duboisia myoporoides - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-055.jpg|Pituri, a drug derived from the corkwood tree (''Duboisia spp.'')
File:PerlmuttAusst.jpg|Pearls
</gallery>

===Domestic Utensils=== 
These are a few of the utensils used by the Aborigines.
;Carrying bags: Made from kangaroo hides, woven fibers, or bowls carved from wood, these items were used for carrying all sorts of items.
;Digging Sticks: Short, sharpened sticks, hardened at the tip by fire. Used for many purposes, including digging up tubers.
;Fire Starters: Friction made by a stick twirled between the hands would light tinder and start a fire.
;Grinding Stones: Used for grinding seeds into flour.
;Knife: Knives were made from stone or bone.
;Thardo: A utensil used for separating grain from chaff.


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===Boomerang and Throwing Sticks=== 
[[File:Australia Cairns Boomerang.jpg|thumb|200px|Boomerangs]]
Boomerangs are curved pieces of wood used as weapons and sport equipment. Boomerangs come in many shapes and sizes depending on their geographic or tribal origins and intended function. The most recognisable type is the returning boomerang, which is a throwing stick that travels in a elliptical path and returns to its point of origin when thrown correctly. Although non-returning boomerangs (throw sticks or kylie's) were used as weapons, returning boomerangs have only ever been used for leisure or recreation.


No one knows for sure how the returning boomerang was first invented, but some modern boomerang makers speculate that it developed from the flattened throwing stick, still used by the Australian Aborigines and some other tribal people around the world. A hunting boomerang is delicately balanced and much harder to make than a returning one. Probably, the curving flight characteristic of returning boomerangs was first noticed by stone age hunters trying to "tune" their hunting sticks to fly straight.


Boomerangs (termed "throwsticks") for hunting larger prey, such as kangaroo, were used for small prey as well. These throwsticks fly in a nearly straight path when thrown horizontally and are heavy enough to take down a kangaroo on impact to the legs or knees. For hunting emu, the throwstick is thrown toward the neck, breaking it.

===Woomera=== 
[[File:Aboriginal craft.jpg|thumb|200px|The woomera in this picture is the wooden object at left]]
A woomera is an Australian Aboriginal spear-throwing device usually used for larger prey or when there is a greater distance to be overcome. It has been described as "the most efficient spear-throwing device ever". Similar to an atlatl, it enables a spear to travel much further than by arm strength alone. It is very much like an extension of the arm, enabling the spear to travel at a greater speed and force than what would normally be attainable unaided. It is still used today in some remote areas of Australia.


As with spears and boomerangs, woomera were traditionally only used by men. Some woomeras, especially those used in the Central and Western Australian deserts, were multi-purpose tools. Often shaped like long narrow bowls, they could be used for carrying water-soaked vegetable matter (which could later be sucked for its moisture, but wouldn't spill) as well as small food items such as little lizards or seeds. Many woomeras had a sharp stone cutting edge attached to the end of the handle with black gum from the spinifex plant. This sharp tool had many uses – and was commonly used for cutting up game or other food, cutting wood, and so on.


The woomera could be used as a shield for protection against spears and boomerangs. Some boomerangs were deliberately made with a hook at one end designed to catch onto the edge of a woomera or shield, which then caused the boomerang to swivel around and hit the enemy.


The woomera was traditionally decorated with incised or painted designs which gave a good indication of the owner's tribal or clan group, giving one their sense of identity or "being".

===Waddy=== 
A waddy, nulla nulla or hunting stick is an Australian Aboriginal war club. The former name comes from the Dharuk Aborigines of Port Jackson, Sydney.


A waddy is a heavy club constructed of carved timber. Waddies have been used in hand to hand combat, and were capable of splitting a shield, and killing or stunning food. In addition to this they could be employed as a projectile as well as used to make fire and make ochre. They found further use in punishing those who broke Aboriginal law.


They were made by both men and women and could be painted or left unpainted. Their construction varied from tribe to tribe, but they were generally about one metre in length and sometimes had a stone head attached with bees wax and string. They were made from where a branch met the tree, or from a young tree pulled up with its roots from the ground.


Originally, the word waddy referred to a tree, or any piece of wood, as well as a verb meaning to 'beat up or kill with a club'.
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===Corroboree=== 
A '''corroboree''' is a ceremonial meeting of Australian Aborigines. The word was coined by the European settlers of Australia in imitation of the Aboriginal word ''caribberie''. At a corroboree Aborigines interact with the Dreamtime through dance, music and costume. Many ceremonies act out events from the Dreamtime. Many of the ceremonies are sacred and people from outside a community are not permitted to participate or watch.


In the northwest of Australia, ''corroboree'' is a generic word to define theatrical practices as different from ceremony. Whether it be public or private, ceremony is for invited guests. There are other generic words to describe traditional public performances: ''juju'' and ''kobbakobba'' for example. In the Pilbara, corroborees are ''yanda'' or ''jalarra''. Across the Kimberley the word ''junba'' is often used to refer to a range of traditional performances and ceremionies.


Corroboree and ceremony are strongly connected but different. In the 1930s Adolphus Elkin wrote of a public pan-Aboriginal dancing "tradition of individual gifts, skill, and ownership" as distinct from the customary practices of appropriate elders guiding initiation and other ritual practices. Corroborees are open performances in which everyone may participate taking into consideration that the songs and dances are highly structured requiring a great deal of knowledge and skill to perform.


''Corroboree'' is a generic word to explain different genres of performance which in the northwest of Australia include balga, wangga, lirrga, junba, ilma and many more. Throughout Australia the word ''corroboree'' embraces songs, dances, rallies and meetings of various kinds. In the past a corroboree has been inclusive of sporting events and other forms of skill display. It is an appropriated English word that has been reappropriated to explain a practice that is different to ceremony and more widely inclusive than theatre or opera.

===Clap sticks and the didgeridoo=== 
Aboriginal people developed unique instruments and folk styles. The didgeridoo is commonly considered the national instrument of Aboriginal people, and it is claimed to be the world's oldest wind instrument. However, it was traditionally only played by Arnhem Land people, such as the Yolngu, and then only by the men. It has possibly been used by the people of the Kakadu region for 1500 years. Clap sticks are probably the more ubiquitous musical instrument, especially because they help maintain the rhythm for the song.


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===Games=== 
Marn Grook (also spelt marngrook), literally meaning "Game ball", is the collective name given to a number of traditional Indigenous Australian ball games believed to have been played at gatherings and celebrations of up to 50 players.


The earliest accounts, mostly from the colonial Victorian explorers and settlers, date back to just prior to the Victorian gold rush in the mid 1800s, but the game is suspected to have been played for many thousands of years. This connection justifies the claim of Australian Rules Football as being one of the oldest games still played today, albeit changed.


Regarding the playing of the game:
* There was no scoring;
* Teams could consist of extremely large numbers of players;
* Games were played over an extremely large area;
* The main object appears to have been to have fun, although good passages of play by individual players was usually commented upon; this particularly applied to high marking.


Marn Grook is especially notable as it is claimed by some to have had an influence on the modern game of Australian rules football, most notably in the catching of the kicked ball (the mark in Australian football) and, in particular, high jumping (the spectacular mark in Australian football) exhibited by the players of both games.


The 1858 Australian Rules game between Scotch College and Melbourne Grammar School, which is believed by most historians to have been the first Australian Rules game, included a number of the features of Marn Grook; in particular, the large number of players and the large area of play (the 1858 game had goals that were 500 metres apart). Both of these features disappeared from Australian Rules after the first rules were drawn up in 1859.

===Training, Initiation, and Bora=== 
A Bora is the name given both to an initiation ceremony, and to the site on which the initiation is performed. At such a site, young boys are transformed into men. The initiation ceremony differs from culture to culture, but often involves circumcision and scarification, and may also involve the removal of a tooth or part of a finger. The ceremony, and the process leading up to it, involves the learning of sacred songs, stories, dances, and traditional lore. Many different clans will assemble to participate in an initiation ceremony.


The word Bora was originally from South-East Australia, but is now often used throughout Australia to describe an initiation site or ceremony. It is called a Burbung in the language of the Darkinjung, to the North of Sydney. The name is said to come from that of the belt worn by initiated men. The appearance of the site varies from one culture to another, but it is often associated with stone arrangements, rock engravings, or other art works. Women are generally prohibited from entering a bora.


In South East Australia, the Bora is often associated with the creator-spirit Baiame. In the Sydney region, large Earth mounds were made, shaped as long bands or simple circles. Sometimes the boys would have to pass along a path marked on the ground representing the transition from childhood to manhood, and this path might be marked by a stone arrangement or by footsteps, or mundoes, cut into the rock. In other areas of South-East Australia, a Bora site might consist of two circles of stones, and the boys would start the ceremony in the larger, public, one, and end it in the other, smaller, one, to which only initiated men are admitted.


Bora rings, found in South-East Australia, are circles of foot-hardened earth surrounded by raised embankments. They were generally constructed in pairs (although some sites have three), with a bigger circle about 22 metres in diameter and a smaller one of about 14 metres. The rings are joined by a sacred walkway.

===Bull Roarer=== 
The bullroarer is an ancient ritual musical instrument and means of communicating over extended distances. Along with the didgeridoo, it is prominent technology among Australian Aborigines, used in ceremony across the continent.


Bullroarers have accompanied the didgeridoos in initiation ceremonies and in burials to ward off evil spirits, bad tidings, and even women and children.


Bullroarers are considered secret men's business by some Aboriginal tribal groups, and hence taboo for women, children, non-initiated men and/or outsiders to even hear. They are used in men's initiation ceremonies and the sound they produced is considered by some Indigenous cultures to represent the sound of the Rainbow Serpent. In the cultures of South-East Australia, the sound of the bullroarer is the voice of Daramulan, and a successful bullroarer can only be made if it has been cut from a tree containing his spirit.


Bullroarers have sometimes been referred to as "wife-callers" by Australian Aborigines.


A bullroarer is used by Paul Hogan in the 1988 film Crocodile Dundee II.


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There are many "types" of Aboriginal art, but the two most famous types appear to be ''bark painting'' and ''rock art''.
===Bark Painting=== 
[[File:Yirrkala Bark Painting.jpg|thumb|300px|Bark painting]]
Bark painting is an Australian Aboriginal art-form which is done on the interior strip of a tree bark. Traditionally, bark paintings were produced for instructional and ceremonial purposes and were transient objects. Today, they are keenly sought after by collectors and public arts institutions.


The barest necessities for bark artwork are paint, brushes, bark, fixative and a fire.


The material of choice is the bark from Stringybark (''Eucalyptus tetradonta''). The bark chosen must be free of knots and other blemishes. It is best cut from the tree in the wet season when the sap is rising. Two horizontal slices and a single vertical slice are made into the tree, and the bark is then carefully peeled off with the aid of a sharpened tool. Only the inner smooth bark is kept and placed in a fire. After heating in the fire, the bark is flattened under foot and weighted with stones or logs to dry flat. The 'canvas' is then ready to paint upon.


Earth pigments - or ochres - in red, yellow and black are used and are mineral oxides of iron and manganese. White pipeclay, or calcium carbonate, is also used. Ochres may be fixed with a binder such as PVA glue, or in the old days, with the sap or juice of plants such as orchid bulbs.


After the painting is completed, the bark is splinted at either end to keep the painting flat. A fixative, traditionally orchid juice, is added over the top.


The sacred designs on which bark paintings are based included abstract patterns and designs (such as cross-hatching in particular colours) which identify a clan, and also often contain elements of the Eternal Dreamtime. Sometimes the elements of a story are obvious - such as those depicting men or animals - but sometimes the elements are symbolic. What appears to the tourist as a series of wavy lines punctuated by dots may actually be telling a complex Dreaming story describing the path of a creator spirit, and the events that happened along the way.


An uninitiated man or woman is only allowed to paint outside stories - in other words, the sort of story that might be told to a child. An initiated man can paint an inside story, which is itself restricted knowledge. Thus a painting may be displayed in an exhibition, or put up for sale, but the artist, although having the right to paint the story, does not have the right to tell the story to another person. Alternatively, the story behind the painting may be one which cannot be told to an uninitiated person.
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===Rock Art=== 
[[Image:Yankee Hat art-MJC.jpg|thumb|Aboriginal rock painting at Namadgi National Park featuring a Kangaroo, Dingoes, Emus, Humans and an Echidna or Turtle]]
Indigenous art includes a range of styles of rock painting:


* The cross-hatch or X-ray art from the Arnhem Land and Kakadu regions of the Northern Territory, in which the skeletons and viscera of the animals and humans portrayed are drawn inside the outline, as if by cross section.
* Dot-painting where intricate patterns, totems and/or stories are created using dots; and
* Stencil art, particularly using the motif of a hand print.


More simple designs of straight lines, circles and spirals, are also common, and in many cases are thought to be the origins of some forms of contemporary Aboriginal Art.


A particular type of Aboriginal painting, known as the Bradshaws, appears on caves in the Kimberley region of Western Australia. They are named after the European pastoralist, Joseph Bradshaw, who first reported them in 1891. To Aboriginal people of the region they are known as Gwion Gwion. Traditional Aboriginal art is composed of organic colours and materials, but modern artists often use synthetic paints when creating aboriginal styles.
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===1788-1900=== 
In 1770, Lieutenant James Cook claimed the east coast of Australia in the name of Great Britain and named it New South Wales. British colonisation of Australia began in Sydney in 1788. The most immediate consequence of British settlement – within weeks of the first colonists' arrival – was a wave of European epidemic diseases such as chickenpox, smallpox, influenza and measles, which spread in advance of the frontier of settlement. The worst-hit communities were the ones with the greatest population densities, where disease could spread more readily. In the arid centre of the continent, where small communities were spread over a vast area, the population decline was less marked.


The second consequence of British settlement was appropriation of land and water resources. The settlers took the view that Indigenous Australians were nomads with no concept of land ownership, who could be driven off land wanted for farming or grazing and who would be just as happy somewhere else. In fact the loss of traditional lands, food sources and water resources was usually fatal, particularly to communities already weakened by disease. Additionally, Indigenous Australians groups had a deep spiritual and cultural connection to the land, so that in being forced to move away from traditional areas, cultural and spiritual practices necessary to the cohesion and well-being of the group could not be maintained. Settlers also brought alcohol, opium and tobacco, and substance abuse has remained a chronic problem for indigenous communities ever since. The combination of disease, loss of land and direct violence reduced the Aboriginal population by an estimated 90% between 1788 and 1900. Entire communities in the moderately fertile southern part of the continent simply vanished without trace, often before European settlers arrived or recorded their existence.


As the European pastoral industries developed, several economic changes came about. The appropriation of prime land and the spread of European livestock over vast areas made a traditional indigenous lifestyle less viable, but also provided a ready alternative supply of fresh meat for those prepared to incur the settlers' anger by hunting livestock. The impact of disease and the settlers' industries had a profound impact on the Indigenous Australians' way of life. With the exception of a few in the remote interior, all surviving indigenous communities gradually became dependent on the settler population for their livelihood. In south-eastern Australia, during the 1850s, large numbers of white pastoral workers deserted employment on stations for the Australian goldrushes. Indigenous women, men and children became a significant source of labour. Most indigenous labour was unpaid, instead indigenous workers received rations in the form of food, clothing and other basic necessities. In the later 19th century, settlers made their way north and into the interior, appropriating small but vital parts of the land for their own exclusive use (waterholes and soaks in particular), and introducing sheep, rabbits and cattle, all three of which ate out previously fertile areas and degraded the ability of the land to carry the native animals that were vital to indigenous economies. Indigenous hunters would often spear sheep and cattle, incurring the wrath of graziers, after they replaced the native animals as a food source. As large sheep and cattle stations came to dominate northern Australia, indigenous workers were quickly recruited. Several other outback industries, notably pearling, also employed Aboriginal workers.


In many areas Christian missions provided food and clothing for indigenous communities and also opened schools and orphanages for indigenous children. In some places colonial governments provided some resources

===After 1900=== 
In spite of the impact of disease, violence and the spread of foreign settlement and custom, some indigenous communities in remote desert and tropical rainforest areas survived according to traditional means until well into the 20th century. Although missionary life was, by 1914, in retrospect absent of any meaning, most free men supported the war effort and around 1200[citation needed] answered the call to arms. Restrictions on Aborigines serving in the military were not relaxed until 1917, but many enlisted by claiming they were Māori or Indian.


By the 1920s, the indigenous population had declined to between 50,000 and 90,000, and the belief that the Indigenous Australians would soon die out was widely held, even among Australians sympathetic to their situation. But by about 1930, those Indigenous Australians who had survived had acquired better resistance to imported diseases, and birthrates began to rise again as communities were able to adapt to changed circumstances.


In the Northern Territory, significant frontier conflict continued. Both isolated Europeans and visiting Asian fishermen were killed by hunter gatherers until the start of World War II in 1939. It is known that some European settlers in the centre and north of the country shot indigenous people during this period. One particular series of killings became known as the Caledon Bay crisis, and became a watershed in the relationship between indigenous and non-indigenous Australians.


By the end of World War II, many indigenous men had served in the military. They were among the few indigenous Australians to have been granted citizenship; even those that had were obliged to carry papers, known in the vernacular as a "dog licence", with them to prove it. However, Aboriginal pastoral workers in northern Australia remained unfree labourers, paid only small amounts of cash, in addition to rations, and severely restricted in their movements by regulations and/or police action. On May 1, 1946, Aboriginal station workers in the Pilbara region of Western Australia initiated the 1946 Pilbara strike and never returned to work. However, this protest came as modern technology and management techniques were starting to dramatically reduce the amount of labour required by pastoral enterprises. Mass layoffs across northern Australia followed the Federal Pastoral Industry Award of 1968, which required the payment of a minimum wage to Aboriginal station workers. Many of the workers and their families became refugees or fringe dwellers, living in camps on the outskirts of towns and cities.


In 1984, a group of Pintupi people who were living a traditional hunter-gatherer desert-dwelling life were tracked down in the Gibson Desert in Western Australia and brought in to a settlement. They are believed to be the last uncontacted tribe in Australia.

===The path to reconciliation: 1967 onwards=== 
Indigenous Australians were given the right to vote in Commonwealth elections in Australia in November 1963, and in state elections shortly after, with the last state to do so being Queensland in 1965. The 1967 referendum, passed with a 90% majority, allowed the Commonwealth to make laws with respect to Aboriginal people, and for Aboriginal people to be included in counts to determine electoral representation. This has been the largest affirmative vote in the history of Australia's referendums.


In 1971, Yolngu people at Yirrkala sought an injunction against Nabalco to cease mining on their traditional land. In the resulting historic and controversial Gove land rights case, Justice Blackburn ruled that Australia had been terra nullius before European settlement, and that no concept of Native title existed in Australian law. Although the Yolngu people were defeated in this action, the effect was to highlight the absurdity of the law, which led first to the Woodward Commission, and then to the Aboriginal Land Rights Act.


In 1972, the Aboriginal Tent Embassy was established on the steps of Parliament House in Canberra, in response to the sentiment among indigenous Australians that they were "strangers in their own country". A Tent Embassy still exists on the same site.


In 1975, the Whitlam government drafted the Aboriginal Land Rights Act, which aimed to restore traditional lands to indigenous people. After the dismissal of the Whitlam government by the Governor-General, a reduced-scope version of the Act (known as the Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976) was introduced by the coalition government led by Malcolm Fraser. While its application was limited to the Northern Territory, it did grant "inalienable" freehold title to some traditional lands.


In 1992, the Australian High Court handed down its decision in the Mabo Case, declaring the previous legal concept of terra nullius to be invalid. This decision legally recognised certain land claims of Indigenous Australians in Australia prior to British Settlement. Legislation was subsequently enacted and later amended to recognise Native Title claims over land in Australia.


In 1998, as the result of an inquiry into the forced removal of indigenous children (see Stolen generation) from their families, a National Sorry Day was instituted, to acknowledge the wrong that had been done to indigenous families. Many politicians, from both sides of the house, participated, with the notable exception of the Prime Minister, John Howard.


In 1999 a referendum was held to change the Australian Constitution to include a preamble that, amongst other topics, recognised the occupation of Australia by Indigenous Australians prior to British Settlement. This referendum was defeated, though the recognition of Indigenous Australians in the preamble was not a major issue in the referendum discussion, and the preamble question attracted minor attention compared to the question of becoming a republic.


In 2008 the prime minister of Australia Keven Rudd, made an official apology to the Indigenous Australians for the years of misery that they suffered. Although nothing has been done in actual way of legislation and such, this is the first step in bridging the gap between the two cultures.
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==References== 
* [http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/2006/1801033.htm Two groups may have populated Australia]
* [http://www1.aiatsis.gov.au/dawn/docs/v08/s02/3.pdf How Aboriginal Children Grow Up], by Michael Sawtell.
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AY Honors/African Lore/Answer Key

2021-03-09T21:38:54Z

BoisSar:

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{{honor_desc
|stage=100
|honorname=African Lore
|skill=1
|year=2001
|category=Arts and Crafts
|authority=General Conference
|reqpdf=African_Lore_Requirements.pdf
|insignia=African-Lore.png
}}
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The answers for requirement two include information about the location of the tribes described. We suggest that you consult a map of Africa and using the information presented below, locate the areas where ten tribes are today. Requirement two also provides many outstanding features of the tribes described.


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There are thousands of tribes in Africa, and we will not pretend to describe them all. Rather, we will present a small handful of the largest tribes here, and even then, not with much detail. If an African tribe not described here interests you, you are encouraged to research it. If you like, you can add your research to this Wikibook.


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====Acholi==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Acholi
|image = Ugandan_children.jpg
|image caption = Children displaced by the insurgency of the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) of northern Uganda into Labuje camp near Kitgum Town.
|Eating habits =
|Initiation ceremony =
|Shamans =
|Living conditions = Their traditional dwelling-places were circular huts with a high peak, furnished with a mud sleeping-platform, jars of grain and a sunk fireplace, with the walls daubed with mud and decorated with geometrical or conventional designs in red, white or grey.
|Religion=Most Acholi are Protestant, Catholic and, in lesser numbers, Muslim. Nevertheless, the traditional belief in guardian and ancestor spirits remains strong, though it is now often described in Christian or Islamic terms.
|Education=
|Burial=When a man dies he is buried near the entrance of his hut. The grave is left open and guarded by a young person until it begins to decompose. At that time, it is considered safe to bury the corpse. After burial, a fence is erected around the grave, and trees are planted on top of it. The Acholi consider it unfortunate for a man to die of natural causes. It is considered lucky for a man to die while hunting or while fighting a war, even though the body is left unburied in these cases, left for the vultures.
|Money=
|Dress=
|Industry=
|Location=Southern Sudan, Northern Uganda
|Members=750,000
}}

====Amhara==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Amhara
|image = Adi Arkay.jpg
|image caption = A street in Adi Arkay with a view to the Simien Mountains in the background (Amhara Region, Ethiopia).


|Eating habits = Barley, corn, millet, wheat, sorghum, and teff, along with beans, peppers, chickpeas, and other vegetables, are the most important crops. In the highlands one crop per year is normal, while in the lowlands two are possible. Cattle, sheep, and goats are also raised.


|Initiation ceremony = The Amhara consider it dishonorable for a man to marry a woman who is not a virgin. Therefore, girls were until recently married shortly after beginning menstruation.


|Shamans = The Amhara have priests to administer their religious rites.


|Living conditions = About 90 percent of the Amhara are rural and make their living through farming, mostly in the Ethiopian highlands. Prior to the 1974 Ethiopian Revolution, absentee landlords maintained strict control over their sharecropping tenants, often allowing them to accumulate crippling debt. After 1974, the landlords were replaced by local government officials, who play a similar role.


|Religion=The predominant religion of the Amhara for centuries has been Christianity, with the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church playing a central role in the culture of the country. According to the 1994 census, 81.5 percent of the population of the Amhara region (which is 91.2 percent Amhara) were Ethiopian Orthodox; 18.1 percent were Muslim, and 0.1 percent were Protestant ("P'ent'ay"). The Ethiopian Orthodox Church maintains close links with the Egyptian Coptic Church. Easter and Epiphany are the most important celebrations, marked with services, feasting and dancing. There are also many fast days throughout the year, when only vegetables or fish may be eaten.


|Education=Today, most Amhara are educated in secular schools, but in the past, education was the duty of the church.


|Burial= The body is washed, wrapped in funeral clothing, and carried to the church in a straw mat. The body is generally buried withing 24 hours of death.


|Money=
[[File:Birr.JPG|thumb|200px|Ethopian birr]]
The ''birr'' is the unit of currency in Ethiopia. Before 1976, dollar was the official English translation of birr. Today, it is officially birr in English as well.


|Dress=The Amhara live at high altitudes ({{units|2100-4200 meters|7000-14000 feet}}), so their clothing is designed to be warm. In modern times, the Amhara dress in western clothing manufactured in Asia. Some still prefer traditional clothing, which consists of jodphurs and a shirt, with an outer garment called a ''gabi''.


|Industry=Most people are employed in agricultural pursuits, but many also run businesses, trading all sorts of goods.


|Location=Ethiopia


|Members=19.8 million
}}

====Fula==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Fula
|image = Peul women in Paoua.jpg
|image caption = Fula women


|Eating habits = Dairy is an important part of the diet, including milk, yogurt, and butter. Their main meal of the day will feature a porridge made from grain (millet, sorghum, or corn).


|Initiation ceremony =The ''Guérewol'' is an annual courtship ritual competition among the Wodaabe Fula people of Niger. Young men dressed in elaborate ornamentation and made up in traditional face painting gather in lines to dance and sing, vying for the attentions of marriageable young women.


|Shamans = Similar to spiritual leaders, the imam is the one who leads the prayer during Islamic gatherings. More often the community turns to the mosque imam, if they have an Islamic question. In smaller communities an imam could be the community leader based on the community setting.


|Living conditions = The Fulani are traditionally a nomadic, pastoralist, trading people, herding cattle, goats and sheep across the vast dry hinterlands of their domain, keeping somewhat separate from the local agricultural populations.


|Religion=Over 99% of the Fula people practice Islam.


|Education=Children are educated by their parents and by older siblings. They also attend Koranic schools where they learn the scriptures and teachings of Islam.


|Burial=The body is washed, wrapped in a scented cotton shroud, and buried. After three days, alms are given to Koranic students, the sick, and the poor.


|Money=


|Dress=The traditional dress of the Fula in most places consists of long colorful flowing robes, modestly embroidered or otherwise decorated.


|Industry=Nomadic Fula men tend cattle. Some hold jobs in the cities as teachers and businessmen.


|Location=The Fula are an ethnic group of people spread over many countries, predominantly in West Africa, but found also in Central Africa and Sudanese North Africa. The countries in Africa where they are present include Mauritania, Senegal, Guinea, The Gambia, Mali, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Benin, Burkina Faso, Guinea Bissau, Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, Niger, Chad, Togo, the Central African Republic, Ghana, Liberia, and as far as Sudan in the east. Fula people form a minority in every country they live, but in Guinea they represent a plurality of the population (40%).


|Members=Over 6 million
}}

====Igbo==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Igbo
|image = Igbo people.jpg
|image caption = O. Equiano • Jaja of Opobo • Chinua Achebe • C. Ohuruogu


|Eating habits =
The yam is very important to the Igbo as it is their staple crop. There are celebrations such as the New yam festival which are held for the harvesting of the yam. During the festival yam is eaten throughout the communities as celebration. Yam tubers are shown off by individuals as a sign of success and wealth.


Rice has replaced yam for ceremonial occasions. Other foods include cassava, garri, maize and plantains. Soups or stews are included in a typical meal, prepared with a vegetable (such as okra, of which the word derives from the Igbo language, Okwuru) to which pieces of fish, chicken, beef, or goat meat are added. Jollof rice is popular throughout West Africa.


|Initiation ceremony = Boys and girls are initiated into adulthood in a ceremony in which they are given their first clothes, called ''Ima Akwa''. Until that time they are basically naked (and are considered to have nothing to hide until then), with the exception of beads worn for spiritual purposes.


|Shamans = In Igbo society, there are intermediaries between individuals or whole communities and specific deities. Variously called Dibia, Babalawo, etc., the priest usually presides at the altar of a particular deity.


The Igbo believe in reincarnation. People are believed to reincarnate into families that they were part of while alive. Before a relative dies, it is said that the soon to be deceased relative sometimes give clues of who they will reincarnate as in the family. Once a child is born, he or she is believed to give signs of who they have reincarnated from. This can be through behavior, physical traits and statements by the child. A diviner can help in detecting who the child has reincarnated from.


|Living conditions = Before the development of the oil industry in Nigeria, most Igbo people lived in mud huts with thatch roofs. Today, they live in houses made of cement blocks with corrugated iron roofs.


|Religion=Today, the majority of the Igbo people are Christian, well over half of whom are Roman Catholics. There are a small population of Igbo Jews. The ancient Igbo religion and traditions are known as Odinani. In Igbo mythology, which is part of their ancient religion, the supreme God is called Chukwu ("great spirit"); Chukwu created the world and everything in it and is associated with all things on Earth. Chukwu is a solar deity. To the ancient Igbo, the Cosmos was divided into four complex parts: creation, known as Okike; supernatural forces or deities called Alusi; Mmuo, which are spirits; and Uwa, the world.


|Education=The nation of Nigeria has made education a priority, so children receive a universal primary education. Secondary education is rapidly becoming the norm as well.


|Burial=After a death, the body of a prominent member of society is placed on a stool in a sitting posture and is clothed in the deceased's finest garments. Animal sacrifices may be offered to them and they can be well perfumed. Burial usually follows within 24 hours of death. The head of a home is usually buried beneath the floor of his house.


Different types of deaths warrant different types of burials. This is affected by an individual's age, gender and status in society. For example, children are buried in hiding and out of sight, their burials usually take place in the early mornings and late nights. A simple untitled man is buried in front of his house and a simple mother is buried in her place of origin in a garden or a farm-area that belonged to her father. Presently, a majority of the Igbo bury their dead in the western way, although it is not uncommon for burials to be practiced in the traditional Igbo ways.


|Money=
[[File:Stamp Nigeria 1953 0.5p manilla.jpg|thumb|A Stamp depicting Manillas]]
Manillas are ring-like armlets, mostly in bronze or copper, very rarely gold, which served as a form of money or barter coinage and to a degree, ornamentation, amongst certain West African peoples including the Igbo. They also became known as "slave trade money" after the Europeans started using them to acquire slaves for the slave trade into the Americas (as well as England prior to 1807).


|Dress=Traditionally, the attire of the Igbo generally consisted of little clothing as the purpose of clothing originally was to conceal private parts, although elders were fully clothed. Children were usually nude from birth till their adolescence (the time when they were considered to have something to hide) but sometimes ornaments such as beads were worn around the waist for spiritual reasons. Uli body art was used to decorate both men and women in the form of lines forming patterns and shapes on the body.


Women traditionally carry their babies on their backs with a strip of clothing binding the two with a knot at her chest, a practice used by many ethnic groups across Africa. This method has been modernized in the form of the child carrier. In most cases Igbo women did not cover their breast areas. Maidens usually wore a short wrapper with beads around their waist and other ornaments such as necklaces and beads. Both men and women wore wrappers.


Men would wear loin cloths that wrapped round their waist and between their legs to be fastened at their back, the type of clothing appropriate for the intense heat as well as jobs such as farming.


In the same era as the rise of colonial forces in Nigeria, the way the Igbo dressed changed. These changes made the Igbo adopt Westernized clothing such as shirts and trousers. Clothing worn before colonialism became "traditional" and worn on special occasions. The traditional clothing itself became westernized with the introduction of various types of Western clothing including shoes, hats, trousers, etc. Modern Igbo traditional attire, for men, is generally made up of the Isiagu top which resembles the Dashiki worn by other African groups. Isiagu (or Ishi agu) is usually patterned with lions heads embroidered over the clothing and can be a plain color. It is worn with trousers and can be worn with either a traditional title holders hat or with the traditional Igbo stripped men's hat. For women, a puffed sleeve blouse (influenced by European attire) along with two wrappers and a head tie are worn.


|Industry=Growing root crops is the traditional form of employment among the Igbo. However, in modern times the Igbo can be found working in the oil industry, education, business, and construction.


|Location=Southeastern Nigeria.


|Members=Between 24 and 25 million
}}

====Ijaw==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Ijaw
|image = IjoMask1.jpg
|image caption = An Ijaw mask


|Eating habits = Like many ethnic groups in Nigeria, the Ijaws have many local foods that are not widespread in Nigeria. Many of these foods involve fish and other seafoods such as clams, oysters and periwinkles; yams and plantains. Some of these foods are:
* Polofiyai — A very rich soup made with yams and palm oil
* Kekefiyai— A pottage made with chopped unripened (green) plantains, fish, other seafood or game meat ("bushmeat") and palm oil
* Fried or roasted fish and plantain — Fish fried in palm oil and served with fried plantains
* Gbe — The grub of the raffia-palm tree beetle that is eaten raw, dried or pickled in palm oil
* Kalabari "sea-harvest" fulo— A rich mixed seafood soup or stew that is eaten with foofoo, rice or yams


|Initiation ceremony = Among the Okrika tribe of the Ijaw people, when a girl is about 17 years old, she (and the other girls in her community) undergoes a ritual called the ''Iria'', which is a coming-of-age ceremony. This ceremony has elements common to many other initiation ceremonies, including isolation, instruction, transition, and celebration. In former times, a girl was expected to marry immediately following her ''Iria'', but now it is acceptable for a woman to finish her education (including college) before marriage. The ''Iria'' still serves as an indication that a woman is eligible for marriage.


|Shamans = Among the Ijaw, witch doctors are neither admired nor sought. Rather, they are feared, and if a person is suspected of being a witch doctor, his (or her) life could be in mortal danger. Witch doctors are thought to possess the ability to change themselves into animals, such as rats, foxes, goats, pigs, or the like. In this form, the witches can bite people, causing infection, and in some cases death. Witches are considered to be capable of performing almost any evil deed.


|Living conditions = The Ijaw people live by fishing supplemented by farming paddy-rice, plantains, yams, cocoyams, bananas and other vegetables as well as tropical fruits such as guava, mangoes and pineapples; and trading. Smoke-dried fish, timber, palm oil and palm kernels are processed for export. While some clans had powerful chiefs and a stratified society, other clans are believed not to have had any centralized confederacies until the arrival of the British. However, owing to influence of the neighbouring Kingdom of Benin individual communities even in the western Niger Delta also had chiefs and governments at the village level.


|Religion=Although the Ijaw are now primarily Christians (95% profess to be), with Catholicism and Anglicanism being the varieties of Christianity most prevalent among them, the Ijaw have elaborate traditional religious practices of their own. Veneration of ancestors plays a central role in Ijaw traditional religion, while water spirits, known as Owuamapu figure prominently in the Ijaw pantheon. In addition, the Ijaw practice a form of divination called Igbadai, in which recently deceased individuals are interrogated on the causes of their death.


Ijaw religious beliefs hold that water spirits are like humans in having personal strengths and shortcomings, and that humans dwell among the water spirits before being born. The role of prayer in the traditional Ijaw system of belief is to maintain the living in the good graces of the water spirits among whom they dwelt before being born into this world, and each year the Ijaw hold celebrations in honor the spirits lasting for several days. Central to the festivities is the role of masquerades, in which men wearing elaborate outfits and carved masks dance to the beat of drums and manifest the influence of the water spirits through the quality and intensity of their dancing. Particularly spectacular masqueraders are taken to actually be in the possession of the spirits on whose behalf they are dancing.


|Education=Because the government of Nigeria places high importance on education, the Ijaw people receive a universal primary eduction. Secondary schooling is also quite common.


|Burial=When a person dies, the Ijaw consult an oracle to determine whether or not the deceased was a witch or a wizard. If this is found the be the case, the person is buried outside the city. Otherwise, burial takes place within the city.


|Money=Like the Igbo, the Ijaw used Manillas as currency.


|Dress=Ijaws wear flowing robes and wrappers around the waist. They carry walking sticks which are topped with a hat.


|Industry=Being a maritime people, many Ijaws were employed in the merchant shipping sector in the early and mid-20th century (pre-Nigerian independence). With the advent of oil and gas exploration in their territory, some are employed in that sector. Other main occupation are in the civil service of the Nigerian State of Bayelsa where they are predominant.


|Location=Southern Nigeria
|Members=10 million
}}

====Maasai==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Maasai
|image = Maasai women and children.jpg
|image caption =Maasai women and children


|Eating habits = Traditionally, the Maasai diet consisted of meat, milk, and blood from cattle. An ILCA study (Nestel 1989) states: “Today, the staple diet of the Maasai consists of cow's milk and maize-meal. The former is largely drunk fresh or in sweet tea and the latter is used to make a liquid or solid porridge. The solid porridge is known as uoali and is eaten with milk; unlike the liquid porridge, uoali is not prepared with milk. Meat, although an important food, is consumed irregularly and cannot be classified as a staple food. Animal fats or butter are used in cooking, primarily of porridge, maize, and beans. Butter is also an important infant food. Blood is rarely drunk.”


|Initiation ceremony =The central unit of Maasai society is the age-set. Although young boys are sent out with the calves and lambs as soon as they can toddle, childhood for boys is mostly playtime, with the exception of ritual beatings to test courage and endurance. Girls are responsible for chores such as cooking and milking, skills which they learn from their mothers at an early age. Every 15 years or so, a new and individually named generation of Morans or Il-murran (warriors) will be initiated. This involves most boys between 12 and 25, who have reached puberty and are not part of the previous age-set. One rite of passage from boyhood to the status of junior warrior is a painful circumcision ceremony, which is performed without anaesthetic. This ritual is typically performed by the elders, who use a sharpened knife and makeshift cattle hide bandages for the procedure. The Maa word for circumcision is emorata. The boy must endure the operation in silence. Expressions of pain bring dishonor, albeit temporarily. Any exclamations can cause a mistake in the delicate and tedious process, which can result in life-long scarring, dysfunction, and pain. The healing process will take 3–4 months, during which urination is painful and nearly impossible at times, and boys must remain in black cloths for a period of 4–8 months.


During this period, the newly circumcised young men will live in a "manyatta", a "village" built by their mothers. The manyatta has no encircling barricade for protection, emphasizing the warrior role of protecting the community. No inner krall is built, since warriors neither own cattle or undertake stock duties. Further rites of passage are required before achieving the status of senior warrior, culminating in the eunoto ceremony, the "coming of age".


|Shamans = The central human figure in the Maasai religious system is the laibon who may be involved in: shamanistic healing, divination and prophecy, insuring success in war or adequate rainfall. Whatever power an individual laibon had was a function of personality rather than position.


|Living conditions = As a historically nomadic and then semi-nomadic people, the Maasai have traditionally relied on local, readily available materials and indigenous technology to construct their housing. The traditional Maasai house was in the first instance designed for people on the move and was thus very impermanent in nature. The Inkajijik (houses) are either star-shaped or circular, and are constructed by able-bodied women. The structural framework is formed of timber poles fixed directly into the ground and interwoven with a lattice of smaller branches, which is then plastered with a mix of mud, sticks, grass, cow dung and human urine, and ash. The enkaji is small, measuring about 3m x 5m and standing only 1.5m high. Within this space the family cooks, eats, sleeps, socializes and stores food, fuel and other household possessions. Small livestock are also often accommodated within the enkaji. Villages are enclosed in a circular fence (Enkang) built by the men, usually of thorned acacia, a native tree. At night all cows, goats and sheep are placed in an enclosure in the center, safe from wild animals.


|Religion = The Maasai are monotheistic, and they call God Enkai or Engai. Engai is a single deity with a dual nature: Engai Narok (Black God) is benevolent, and Engai Nanyokie (Red God) is vengeful. The "Mountain of God", Ol Doinyo Lengai, is located in northernmost Tanzania. Many Maasai have become Christian, and to a lesser extent, Muslim.


|Education=During the British rule of East Africa, the Maasai engaged in a form passive resistance to preserve their culture. They refused to settle down, take up agriculture, or send their children to be educated by the British. Education was seen as a way to strip them of their culture. Today with environmental pressures mounting, the Maasai are finding that their children need education in order to survive. Maasai Education Discovery (MED) is a non-governmental organization which operates a dual-culture education system. They teach traditional Maasai skills as well as the sorts of things one would expect to learn with a western education (reading, writing, arithmetic).


|Burial=For Maasai living a traditional life, the end of life is virtually without ceremony, and the dead are left out for scavengers. Burial has in the past been reserved for great chiefs, since it is believed to be harmful to the soil.


|Money=Cattle form the basis of nearly all Maasai transactions.


|Dress=Clothing varies by age, sex, and place. Young men, for instance, wear black for several months following their circumcision. However, red is a favored color. Blue, black, striped, and checkered cloth are also worn, as are multicolored African designs. The Maasai began to replace animal-skin, calf hides and sheep skin, with commercial cotton cloth in the 1960s.


Shúkà is the Maa word for sheets traditionally worn wrapped around the body, one over each shoulder, then a third over the top of them. These are typically red, though with some other colors (e.g. blue) and patterns (e.g. plaid.) Pink, even with flowers, is not shunned by warriors. One piece garments known as kanga, a Swahilli term, are common. Maasai near the coast may wear kikoi, a type of sarong that comes in many different colors and textiles. However, the preferred style is stripes.


|Industry=Traditional Maasai lifestyle centers around their cattle which constitutes the primary source of food. The measure of a man's wealth is in terms of cattle and children. A herd of 50 cattle is respectable, and the more children the better. A man who has plenty of one but not the other is considered to be poor. A Maasai myth relates that God gave them all the cattle on earth, leading to the belief that rustling cattle from other tribes is a matter of taking back what is rightfully theirs, a practice that has become much less common.
|Location=The Maasai are a semi-nomadic people located in Kenya and northern Tanzania. Due to their distinctive customs and dress and residence near the many game parks of East Africa, they are among the most well known of African ethnic groups.

|Members=883,000
}}

====Oromo==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Oromo
|image = Nakempte Boys.jpg
|image caption = Oromo boys


|Eating habits = Ethoipian cuisine remains a mystery to most of the world because visitors (who are most often European) are most often fed European cuisine. The Oromo believe it is rude to eat food in front of someone else who is not eating, and thus, food is not prepared in the streets.


|Initiation ceremony =In a short article, Geoffrey W. Arnott described an Oromo rite of passage in which young men run over the backs of bulls surrounded by the village community. Bruce Parry filmed the same practice among the Hamar people for his BBC television series "Tribe" transmitted in July 2006.


|Shamans = Qallu is a name given to the families who are believed to be descents of Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, the first Caliph of Islam, and who are now living in many areas of Eastern Ethiopia. The Qallu are so named by Somali, Oromo and Harari peoples; within each of these ethnic groups, there is a tribe called "Qallu". The term means "people of the religion" because they were the first to bring Islam to their respective areas; on the other hand, the Oromos use the word as "a negotiator between mankind and God". The Qallu inhabit Hararghe, Ogaden, and Dire Dawa as well as the Republics of Somalia and Djibouti. In Somalia, it is also said that Qallu are related with Sheekhaal Clan or they are part of the larger Fiqi Omar Clan.


|Living conditions = About 95% are settled agriculturalists and nomadic pastoralists, practising archaic farming methods and living at subsistence level. A few live in the urban centres.


|Religion=In the 2007 Ethiopian census in the 88% Oromo region of Oromia, 47% were Islamic, 30% Orthodox Christians, 17.7% Protestant Christian, 3.3% Traditional, and the remaining 1.6% constitute other religious groups. Protestant Christianity is the fastest growing religion inside the Oromo community. In urban areas of Oromia, Othodox Christianity constitute 67.8% of the population, followed by Islam 24% and Protestants 7%. But adherence to traditional practices and rituals is still common among many Oromo people regardless of religious background.


|Education=In Oromia, the educational system is virtually non-existent because schools do not have adequate supplies. Further, the lack of experienced teachers and lack of transportation places additional hampers on education. There are not enough schools or libraries, either in existence or being built, so children who live far away cannot hope to receive a formal education.


|Burial=When an Oromo person dies, the body is washed and tied into a fetal position. The body is then wrapped in a perfumed mat. The intestines are removed from the body of an elite person, whose burial is done in private to preserve the idea that they are not physically mortal. Graves are generally {{units|2 to 2.5 meters|6 to 8 feet}} deep. The body is covered with stones, which are placed on the grave in symbolically important arrangements. Each child of the deceased places a stone on the grave in birth order, and thus, the circle of stones represents each of the deceased person's children. Other people also place stones on the grave, and a person's importance is measured by how many people placed stones there. The family of the deceased will shave their heads in mourning.


|Money=The Oromo use the Ethiopian Birr as their currency.


|Dress=The Oromo economy is based on livestock, and traditional Oromo dress reflects this, featuring leather and beads. During festivals, men may wear a headdress mande from a lion's mane or baboon skin, and carry a shield covered with the hide of a hippo.


|Industry=About 95% are settled agriculturalists and nomadic pastoralists, practicing archaic farming methods and living at subsistence level.


|Location=The Oromo are found in Ethiopia, in northern Kenya, and to a lesser extent in parts of Somalia.
|Members=Over 31 million
}}

====Shona==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Shona
|image = Shona witch doctor (Zimbabwe).jpg
|image caption = Shona religious priest and healer


|Eating habits = The majority of Zimbabweans depend on a few staple foods. Meat, beef and to a lesser extent chicken are especially popular, though consumption has declined under the Mugabe regime due to falling incomes. "Mealie meal" (cornmeal) is used to prepare sadza or isitshwala and bota or ilambazi. Sadza is a porridge made by mixing the cornmeal with water to produce a thick paste. After the paste has been cooking for several minutes, more cornmeal is added to thicken the paste. This is eaten as lunch and dinner, usually with greens (such as spinach, chomolia, collard greens), beans and meat that has been stewed, grilled, or roasted. Sadza is also commonly eaten with curdled milk, commonly known as lacto (mukaka wakakora), or dried Tanganyika sardine, known locally as kapenta or matemba. Bota is a thinner porridge, cooked without the additional cornmeal and usually flavoured with peanut butter, milk, butter, or, sometimes, jam. Bota is usually eaten for breakfast.


|Initiation ceremony =Traditional rites of passage among the Shona are rarely practiced in modern times, having been supplanted by western ceremonies such as baptism an dbirthday celebrations. However, some Shona still practice a ceremony initiating a boy into manhood. In this ceremony, the boy undergoes a public circumcision.


|Shamans = Shona healers are called ''nganga''. ''Nganga'' primarily use two forms of divination to determine the cause of an illness (or other misfortune). One form of divination is called ''Hakata'', in which the nganga consults a set of charms, each of which has its own significance. The other form is ''possession'' in which the nganga causes the petitioner to enter a state of hypnosis. While in this state, anything the petitioner says is interpreted as having come from a spirit.


|Living conditions = According to the United Nations World Health Organisation, the life expectancy for men is 37 years and the life expectancy for women is 34 years of age, the lowest in the world in 2006. The HIV infection rate in Zimbabwe was estimated to be 20.1% for people aged 15–49 in 2006. UNESCO reported a decline in HIV prevalence among pregnant women from 26% in 2002 to 21% in 2004.


|Religion=Sixty two percent of Zimbabweans attend Christian religious services. The largest Christian churches are Anglican, Roman Catholic, Seventh-day Adventist, and Methodist. However like most former European colonies, Christianity is often mixed with enduring traditional beliefs. Besides Christianity, ancestral worship is the most practiced non-Christian religion which involves ancestor worship and spiritual intercession; the Mbira Dza Vadzimu, which means "Voice of the Ancestors", an instrument related to many lamellophones ubiquitous throughout Africa, is central to many ceremonial proceedings. Mwari simply means "God the Creator" ("musika vanhu" in Shona). Around 1% of the population is Muslim.


|Education=Zimbabwe has an adult literacy rate of approximately 90% which is amongst the highest in Africa. Since 1995 the adult literacy rate of Zimbabwe has steadily decreased, a trend shared by other African countries.


The wealthier portion of the population usually send their children to independent schools as opposed to the government-run schools which are attended by the majority as these are subsidised by the government. School education was made free in 1980, but since 1988, the government has steadily increased the charges attached to school enrollment until they now greatly exceed the real value of fees in 1980. The Ministry of Education of Zimbabwe maintains and operates the government schools but the fees charged by independent schools are regulated by the cabinet of Zimbabwe.


Zimbabwe's education system consists of 7 years of primary and 6 years of secondary schooling before students can enter university in the country or abroad. The academic year in Zimbabwe runs from January to December, with three month terms, broken up by one month holidays, with a total of 40 weeks of school per year. National examinations are written during the third term in November, with "O" level and "A" level subjects also offered in June.


|Burial=People of the same clan use a common set of totems. A person with a different totem cannot initiate burial of the deceased. A person of the same totem even when coming from a different tribe, can initiate burial of the deceased. For example a Ndebele of the Mpofu totem can initiate burial of a Shona of the Mhofu totem and that is perfectly acceptable in Shona tradition. But a Shona of a different totem cannot perform the ritual functions required to initiate burial of the deceased.


If a person initiates the burial of a person of a different totem, he runs the risk of being asked to pay a fine to the family of the deceased. Such fines traditionally were paid with cattle or goats but nowadays substantial amounts of money can be asked for.


|Money=The official unit of currency is the Zimbabwean dolloar. Although it is still the official currency, the United States dollar, South African rand, Botswanan pula, Pound sterling and Euro are mostly used instead as the local currency is practically worthless. The US Dollar has been adopted as the official currency for all government transactions with the new power-sharing regime.


Inflation rose from an annual rate of 32% in 1998 to an IMF estimate of 150,000% in December 2007, and to an official estimated high of 231,000,000% in July 2008 according to the country's Central Statistical Office. This represented a state of hyperinflation, and the central bank introduced a new 100 billion dollar note. As of November 2008, unofficial figures put Zimbabwe's annual inflation rate at 516 quintillion per cent, with prices doubling every 1.3 days. Zimbabwe's inflation crisis is now (2009) the second worst inflation spike in history, behind the hyperinflationary crisis of Hungary in 1946, in which prices doubled every 15.6 hours. By 2005, the purchasing power of the average Zimbabwean had dropped to the same levels in real terms as 1953. Local residents have largely resorted to buying essentials from neighbouring Botswana, South Africa and Zambia.


|Dress=Today the Shona dress in western clothing. In the 19th century the men wore breech clothes of animal hide.


|Industry=The Shona were traditionally agricultural, growing beans, peanuts, corn, pumpkins, and sweet potatoes. Mineral exports, agriculture, and tourism are the main foreign currency earners of Zimbabwe. The mining sector remains very lucrative, with some of the world's largest platinum reserves being mined by Anglo-American and Impala Platinum. Zimbabwe is the biggest trading partner of South Africa on the continent.


|Location=Zimbabwe and southern Mozambique. A small group of Shona speaking migrants of the late 1800s also live in Zambia, in the Zambezi valley, in Chieftainess Chiawa's area.
|Members=9 million
}}

====Tuareg==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name =Tuareg
|image = Tuareg2.JPG
|image caption =Tuareg from the Hoggar (Algeria) wearing the classical indigo turban.

|Eating habits = The Tuareg diet consists mostly of grains supplemented with fruits such as dates and melons (when in season), and milk and cheese. Meat is reserved for special occasions.


|Initiation ceremony = When a male turns 18 years old, he receives a veil to wear over his face. The veil is wrapped around his face by the marabout (see below) in a special ritual. Once a man gets his veil, he is considered eligible for marriage.


|Shamans = After the adoption of Islam, a separate class of religious clerics, the Ineslemen or marabouts, also became integral to Tuareg social structure. Following the decimation of many clans' noble Imajaghan caste in the colonial wars of the 19th and 20th centuries, the Ineslemen gained leadership in some clans, despite their often servile origins. Traditionally Ineslemen clans were not armed. They provided spiritual guidance for the nobility, and received protection and alms in return.


|Living conditions = The oldest legends says Tuarerg once lived in grottoes, akazam, and then they lived in folliage beds made on the top acacia trees, tasagesaget, to avoid numerous wild animal during old times and even to this day to escape from mosquitoes. Other kinds of traditional housing include:
* ahaket: Tuareg goatskin red tent
* tafala: a shade made of millet sticks
* akarban also called takabart: temporary hat for winter season
* ategham: hat for hot season
* taghazamt: adobe house for long stay


|Religion = The Tuareg are predominantly Muslim and generally follow the Maliki madhhab, one of the four schools of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam.


|Education=Until recently, the Tuareg resisted sending their children to secular schools out of distrust of the government. Today most children finish primary school, and some go on to university.


|Burial=The dead are buried as soon as possible. The funeral is presided over by the marabout, and is followed by ''iwichken'' (condolences).


|Money=The Tuareg use modern currency.


|Dress=Unlike in many other Muslim societies, women do not traditionally wear the veil, whereas men do. The most famous Tuareg symbol is the Tagelmust (also called éghéwed in Malian Tamasheq, or referred to as a Cheche, pronounced "Shesh", from Berber), an often indigo blue-colored veil called Alasho. The men's facial covering originates from the belief that such action wards off evil spirits. It may have related instrumentally from the need for protection from the harsh desert sands as well. It is a firmly established tradition, as is the wearing of amulets containing verses from the Qur'an. Taking on the veil is associated with the rite of passage to manhood; men begin wearing a veil when they reach maturity. The veil usually conceals their face, excluding their eyes and the top of the nose.


|Industry=The Tuareg are a pastoral people, having an economy based on livestock breeding, trading, and agriculture. Since Prehistoric times Tuareg peoples and their Berber ancestors (the Garamantes) have been organising caravans for trading across the Sahara desert. They also operate salt mines.


|Location=The Tuareg people inhabit a large area, covering almost all the middle and western Sahara and the north-central Sahel. In Tuareg terms, the Sahara is not one desert but many, so they call it Tinariwen ("the Deserts"). Among the many deserts in Africa, there is the true desert Tenere. Other deserts are more and less arid, flat and mountainous: Adrar, Tagant, Tawat (Touat) Tanezruft, Adghagh n Fughas, Tamasna, Azawagh, Adar, Damargu, Tagama, Manga, Ayr, Tarramit (Termit), Kawar, Djado, Tadmait, Admer, Igharghar, Ahaggar, Tassili N'Ajjer, Tadrart, Idhan, Tanghart, Fezzan, Tibesti, Kalansho, Libyan Desert, etc.


|Members=5.2 million
}}

====Xhosa==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name =Xhosa
|image = Xhosa-children.JPG
|image caption = Xhosa children


|Eating habits = The Xhosa settled on mountain slopes of the Amatola and the Winterberg Mountains. Many streams drain into great rivers of this Xhosa territory including the Kei and Fish Rivers. Rich soils and plentiful rainfall make the river basins good for farming and grazing making cattle important and the basis of wealth.


Traditional foods include beef (''Inyama yenkomo''), mutton (''Inyama yegusha''), and goat meat, sorghum, maize and dry maize porridge (''umphokoqo''), ''"umngqusho"'' (made from dried, stamped corn and dried beans), milk (often fermented, called ''amasi''), pumpkins (''amathanga''), beans (''iimbotyi''), and vegetables.


|Initiation ceremony =One traditional ritual that is still regularly practiced is the manhood ritual, a secret rite that marks the transition from boyhood to adulthood (Ulwaluko). After ritual circumcision the initiates (abakwetha) live in isolation for up to several weeks, often in the mountains. During the process of healing they smear white clay on their bodies and observe numerous taboos.


|Shamans = Traditional Xhosa culture includes diviners known as amagqirha, who serve as herbalists, prophets, and healers for the community. This job is mostly taken by women, who spend five years in apprenticeship.


The Xhosas have a strong oral tradition with many stories of ancestral heroes; according to tradition, the leader from whose name the Xhosa people take their name was the first human on Earth. Other traditions have it that all Xhosas are descended from one ancestor named Tshawe.


The key figure in the Xhosa oral tradition is the imbongi (plural: iimbongi) or praise singer. Iimbongi traditionally live close to the chief's "great place" (the cultural and political focus of his activity); they accompany the chief on important occasions - the imbongi Zolani Mkiva preceded Nelson Mandela at his Presidential inauguration in 1994. Iimbongis' poetry, called imibongo, praises the actions and adventures of chiefs and ancestors.


|Living conditions = The Xhosa include both the poorest and the richest members of South African society. The poor live in thatched-roof round huts, and in labor camps, while the wealthiest live in modern houses in suburban neighborhoods.


|Religion = The supreme being is called uThixo or uQamata. Ancestors act as intermediaries and play a part in the lives of the living; they are honoured in rituals. Dreams play an important role in divination and contact with ancestors. Traditional religious practice features rituals, initiations, and feasts. Modern rituals typically pertain to matters of illness and psychological well-being.


Christian missionaries established outposts among the Xhosa in the 1820s, and the first Bible translation was in the mid-1850s, partially done by Henry Hare Dugmore. Xhosa did not convert in great numbers until the 1900s, but now many are Christian, particularly within the African Initiated Churches such as the Zion Christian Church. Some denominations combine Christianity with traditional beliefs.


|Education=Education in primary-schools serving Xhosa-speaking communities is in the Xhosa language, but this is replaced by English after the early primary grades. Xhosa is still considered as a studied subject, however, and it is possible to major in Xhosa at the university level.


|Burial=Xhosa homesteads once featured a cattle kraal, and a chief was traditionally buried in the center of this. Other people were buried outside the villages.


|Money=In old times, the Xhosa used cattle as money, but these days they use modern currency.


|Dress=Xhosa today have adopted the modern, Western style of clothing. It has recently become acceptable for women to wear slacks.


|Industry=Prior to the end of Apartheid, most Xhosa men were employed as miners, and women worked on farms or as domestic servants. Those with the education work in the healthcare, education, and in the government.


|Location=The Xhosa are people living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central-southern parts of the country.

|Members=7.9 million (2001 estimate)
}}
====Yoruba==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Yoruba
|image = Kwarastatedrummers.jpg
|image caption = These drummers were part of a large celebration marking the arrival of running water to their village, Ojumo Oro, Kwara State, Nigeria.
|Eating habits =
|Initiation ceremony =
|Shamans =
|Living conditions =
|Religion=Yoruba religion and mythology is a major influence in West Africa, chiefly in Nigeria, and it has given origin to several New World religions such as Santería in Cuba, Puerto Rico and Candomblé in Brazil.


The popularly known Vodou religion of Haiti combines the religious beliefs of the many different African ethnic nationalities taken to the island with the structure and liturgy from the Fon-Ewe of present-day Benin and the Congo-Angolan culture area, but Yoruba-derived religious ideology and deities also play an important role.


Yoruba deities include "Ọya" (wind/storm), "Ifá" (divination or fate), "Ẹlẹda" (destiny), Orisha or Orisa "Ibeji" (twin), "Ọsanyin" (medicines and healing) and "Ọsun" (goddess of fertility, protector of children and mothers), Sango (God of thunder).


Human beings and other sentient creatures are also assumed to have their own individual deity of destiny, called "Ori", who is venerated through a sculpture symbolically decorated with cowrie shells. Traditionally, dead parents and other ancestors are also believed to possess powers of protection over their descendants. This belief is expressed in veneration and sacrifice on the grave or symbol of the ancestor, or as a community in the observance of the Egungun festival where the ancestors are represented as a colorful masquerade of costumed and masked men who represent the ancestral spirits. Dead parents and ancestors are also commonly venerated by pouring libations to the earth and the breaking of kolanuts in their honor at special occasions.


Today, many contemporary Yoruba are active Christians (60%) and Muslims (30%), yet retain many of the moral and cultural concepts of their traditional faith.
|Education=
|Burial=
|Money=
|Dress=
|Industry=
|Location=Nigeria, Benin, and Togo
|Members=Over 30 million
}}

====Zulu==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Zulu
|image = AAC Worshippers.jpg
|image caption = Zulu worshippers at an African Apostolic Church, near Oribi Gorge


|Eating habits = In the precolonial period, indigenous cuisine was characterized by the use of a very wide range of fruits, nuts, bulbs, leaves and other products gathered from wild plants and by the hunting of wild game. The domestication of cattle in the region about two thousand years ago by Khoisan groups enabled the use of milk products and the availability of fresh meat on demand. However, during the colonial period the seizure of communal land in South Africa restricted and discouraged traditional agriculture and wild harvesting, and reduced the extent of land available to black people.


|Initiation ceremony =Boys between the ages of 16-18 were taken to an isolated area and housed in grass huts. During their stay, no one was allowed to see them other than a small group of older women who were there to give them food and watch over them. The boys are given a small item of clothing, which is the only thing they were prior to their circumcision. After the circumcision, they are given a new set of clothing made from leather, and return to their village where they are considered to have entered manhood.


The initiation ceremony for girls began as soon as she began menstruation. She would gather the roots of a certain shrub and use it to make a porridge which she would eat exclusively for seven days. During this time, and for the enxt three months or so, she was confined to her mother's hut. During this time she was to learn to perform several tasks expected of women, including basket weaving and making beaded clothing. She was allowed to have one friend come and stay with her during this time. She was not allowed to be seen by anyone other than her mother and this friend. Her sisters would make her a new outfit from twisted grass, and at the end of the three months, she would put this on, be presented to the village, and she and her friend and sisters would dance and sing, celebrating the end of her initiation. On the following day, the grass outfit would be burned, signifying that the girl had become a woman.


|Shamans = ''Inyanga'' (literally "the man of the trees") is a Zulu word for a traditional healer.


Although the word ''sangoma'' is generally used in South African English to mean all types of traditional Southern African healers, inyangas and sangomas are in fact different. An inyanga is an herbalist who is concerned with medicines made from plants and animals, while a sangoma relies primarily on divination for healing purposes. The knowledge of the inyanga is passed through the generations from parent to child.


In modern society the status of these medicine men or women has been translated into wealth. Most izinyanga (plural of inyanga) in urban areas have shops with consulting rooms where they sell their medicines.


|Living conditions = The modern Zulu population is fairly evenly distributed in both urban and rural areas. Although KwaZulu-Natal is still their heartland, large numbers have been attracted to the relative economic prosperity of Gauteng province.


|Religion=Most Zulu people state their beliefs to be Christian. Some of the most common churches to which they belong are African Initiated Churches, especially the Zion Christian Church and various Apostolic Churches, although membership of major European Churches, such as the Dutch Reformed, Anglican and Catholic Churches is also common. Nevertheless, many Zulus retain their traditional pre-Christian belief system of ancestor worship in parallel with their Christianity.


Zulu religion includes belief in a creator God (Nkulunkulu) who is above interacting in day-to-day human affairs, although this belief appears to have originated from efforts by early Christian missionaries to frame the idea of the Christian God in Zulu terms. Traditionally, the more strongly held Zulu belief was in ancestor spirits (Amatongo or Amadhlozi), who had the power to intervene in people's lives, for good or ill. This belief continues to be widespread among the modern Zulu population.


|Education=Illiteracy is high among the Zulu, though with the formation of the post-Apartheid goverment, this is changing. Children attend school starting at age 7 and continue sometimes until they are 24 (though not continuously). Many children take long breaks during their school years. Graduation is considered a very high achievement.


|Burial=The Zulus burn all the belongings of the deceased to prevent them from returning to haunt the living.


|Money=Prior to colonialization, the Zulu used cattle as currency. Today they use the South African rand.


|Dress=Traditional male clothing is usually light, consisting of a two-part apron (similar to a loincloth) used to cover the genitals and buttocks. The front piece is called the umutsha, and is usually made of springbok or other animal hide twisted into different bands. The rear piece, called the ibheshu, is made of a single piece of springbok or cattle hide, and its length is usually used as an indicator of age and social position; longer amabheshu (plural of ibheshu) are worn by older men. Married men will usually also wear a headband, called the umqhele, which is usually also made of springbok hide, or leopard hide by men of higher social status, such as chiefs. Zulu men will also wear cow tails as bracelets and anklets called imishokobezi during ceremonies and rituals, such as weddings or dances.


|Industry=Sugar refining is the main industry. Sheep, cattle, dairy, citrus fruits, corn, sorghum, cotton, bananas, and pineapples are also raised. In addition to sugar refining, industries (located mainly in and around Durban) include textile, clothing, chemicals, rubber, fertilizer, paper, vehicle assembly and food-processing plants, tanneries, and oil refineries. There are large aluminum-smelting plants at Richards Bay, on the north coast.


|Location=Most Zulu live in the province of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Small numbers also live in Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Mozambique.


|Members=An estimated 10-11 million
}}


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Hopefully you can find and tell a folk story for the tribe you studied, but here is an example.
===How the Monkeys Saved the Fish=== 
This is a traditional Tanzanian folktale.


;Story: It was the rainy season, and the river had flooded its banks. The animals were all fleeing for their lives as the river rushed down and carried everything away. Many animals died in the flood, but not the monkeys. Because of their great agility, the monkeys were able to climb the trees and escape the flood waters. As they sat in the trees, they noticed the fish swimming in the current.


:The monkeys were very concerned about the fish, saying "Unless we do something, these fish are going to drown!" So the monkeys decided to make their way to the edge of the river where the water was not so deep. "From there, we will be able to save these legless creatures." The monkeys set about their task, grabbing the fish from the river and heaping them in a great pile. When they were finished they saw that the fish were all motionless. "The fish are sleeping now because they are so tired. They struggled against us because they did not know our good intentions." they said to one another. "When they awake, they will be so happy that we saved them."


;Moral: Before you can help someone, you must understand their situation.


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Unless you live in Africa or are able to visit there, this requirement may end up costing a substantial amount of money. It may also take a prolonged amount of time to complete your collection. If you would like to shop for African objects online, we recommend that you apply the following terms to an Internet search engine:
*Africa+gifts
*Africa+crafts
*Africa+imports
*African+artisans
If you live in a large city (or near one), you may be able to find a local shop specializing in African imports. You could also check for a museum of African history and check their gift shop. If you know some immigrants from Africa, you may be able to trade with them.


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==References== 
*http://www.everyculture.com/wc/Mauritania-to-Nigeria/Tuareg.html
*http://www.everyculture.com/wc/Rwanda-to-Syria/Xhosa.html
*http://www.everyculture.com/wc/Costa-Rica-to-Georgia/Amhara.html
*http://www.selamta.net/culture.htm


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AY Honors/African Lore/Answer Key

2021-03-09T21:35:32Z

BoisSar:

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|stage=100
|honorname=African Lore
|skill=1
|year=2001
|category=Arts and Crafts
|authority=General Conference
|reqpdf=African_Lore_Requirements.pdf
|insignia=African-Lore.png
}}
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The answers for requirement two include information about the location of the tribes described. We suggest that you consult a map of Africa and using the information presented below, locate the areas where ten tribes are today. Requirement two also provides many outstanding features of the tribes described.


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There are thousands of tribes in Africa, and we will not pretend to describe them all. Rather, we will present a small handful of the largest tribes here, and even then, not with much detail. If an African tribe not described here interests you, you are encouraged to research it. If you like, you can add your research to this Wikibook.


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====Acholi==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Acholi
|image = Ugandan_children.jpg
|image caption = Children displaced by the insurgency of the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) of northern Uganda into Labuje camp near Kitgum Town.
|Eating habits =
|Initiation ceremony =
|Shamans =
|Living conditions = Their traditional dwelling-places were circular huts with a high peak, furnished with a mud sleeping-platform, jars of grain and a sunk fireplace, with the walls daubed with mud and decorated with geometrical or conventional designs in red, white or grey.
|Religion=Most Acholi are Protestant, Catholic and, in lesser numbers, Muslim. Nevertheless, the traditional belief in guardian and ancestor spirits remains strong, though it is now often described in Christian or Islamic terms.
|Education=
|Burial=When a man dies he is buried near the entrance of his hut. The grave is left open and guarded by a young person until it begins to decompose. At that time, it is considered safe to bury the corpse. After burial, a fence is erected around the grave, and trees are planted on top of it. The Acholi consider it unfortunate for a man to die of natural causes. It is considered lucky for a man to die while hunting or while fighting a war, even though the body is left unburied in these cases, left for the vultures.
|Money=
|Dress=
|Industry=
|Location=Southern Sudan, Northern Uganda
|Members=750,000
}}

====Amhara==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Amhara
|image = Adi Arkay.jpg
|image caption = A street in Adi Arkay with a view to the Simien Mountains in the background (Amhara Region, Ethiopia).


|Eating habits = Barley, corn, millet, wheat, sorghum, and teff, along with beans, peppers, chickpeas, and other vegetables, are the most important crops. In the highlands one crop per year is normal, while in the lowlands two are possible. Cattle, sheep, and goats are also raised.


|Initiation ceremony = The Amhara consider it dishonorable for a man to marry a woman who is not a virgin. Therefore, girls were until recently married shortly after beginning menstruation.


|Shamans = The Amhara have priests to administer their religious rites.


|Living conditions = About 90 percent of the Amhara are rural and make their living through farming, mostly in the Ethiopian highlands. Prior to the 1974 Ethiopian Revolution, absentee landlords maintained strict control over their sharecropping tenants, often allowing them to accumulate crippling debt. After 1974, the landlords were replaced by local government officials, who play a similar role.


|Religion=The predominant religion of the Amhara for centuries has been Christianity, with the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church playing a central role in the culture of the country. According to the 1994 census, 81.5 percent of the population of the Amhara region (which is 91.2 percent Amhara) were Ethiopian Orthodox; 18.1 percent were Muslim, and 0.1 percent were Protestant ("P'ent'ay"). The Ethiopian Orthodox Church maintains close links with the Egyptian Coptic Church. Easter and Epiphany are the most important celebrations, marked with services, feasting and dancing. There are also many fast days throughout the year, when only vegetables or fish may be eaten.


|Education=Today, most Amhara are educated in secular schools, but in the past, education was the duty of the church.


|Burial= The body is washed, wrapped in funeral clothing, and carried to the church in a straw mat. The body is generally buried withing 24 hours of death.


|Money=
[[File:Birr.JPG|thumb|200px|Ethopian birr]]
The ''birr'' is the unit of currency in Ethiopia. Before 1976, dollar was the official English translation of birr. Today, it is officially birr in English as well.


|Dress=The Amhara live at high altitudes ({{units|2100-4200 meters|7000-14000 feet}}), so their clothing is designed to be warm. In modern times, the Amhara dress in western clothing manufactured in Asia. Some still prefer traditional clothing, which consists of jodphurs and a shirt, with an outer garment called a ''gabi''.


|Industry=Most people are employed in agricultural pursuits, but many also run businesses, trading all sorts of goods.


|Location=Ethiopia


|Members=19.8 million
}}

====Fula==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Fula
|image = Peul women in Paoua.jpg
|image caption = Fula women


|Eating habits = Dairy is an important part of the diet, including milk, yogurt, and butter. Their main meal of the day will feature a porridge made from grain (millet, sorghum, or corn).


|Initiation ceremony =The ''Guérewol'' is an annual courtship ritual competition among the Wodaabe Fula people of Niger. Young men dressed in elaborate ornamentation and made up in traditional face painting gather in lines to dance and sing, vying for the attentions of marriageable young women.


|Shamans = Similar to spiritual leaders, the imam is the one who leads the prayer during Islamic gatherings. More often the community turns to the mosque imam, if they have an Islamic question. In smaller communities an imam could be the community leader based on the community setting.


|Living conditions = The Fulani are traditionally a nomadic, pastoralist, trading people, herding cattle, goats and sheep across the vast dry hinterlands of their domain, keeping somewhat separate from the local agricultural populations.


|Religion=Over 99% of the Fula people practice Islam.


|Education=Children are educated by their parents and by older siblings. They also attend Koranic schools where they learn the scriptures and teachings of Islam.


|Burial=The body is washed, wrapped in a scented cotton shroud, and buried. After three days, alms are given to Koranic students, the sick, and the poor.


|Money=


|Dress=The traditional dress of the Fula in most places consists of long colorful flowing robes, modestly embroidered or otherwise decorated.


|Industry=Nomadic Fula men tend cattle. Some hold jobs in the cities as teachers and businessmen.


|Location=The Fula are an ethnic group of people spread over many countries, predominantly in West Africa, but found also in Central Africa and Sudanese North Africa. The countries in Africa where they are present include Mauritania, Senegal, Guinea, The Gambia, Mali, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Benin, Burkina Faso, Guinea Bissau, Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, Niger, Chad, Togo, the Central African Republic, Ghana, Liberia, and as far as Sudan in the east. Fula people form a minority in every country they live, but in Guinea they represent a plurality of the population (40%).


|Members=Over 6 million
}}

====Igbo==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Igbo
|image = Igbo people.jpg
|image caption = O. Equiano • Jaja of Opobo • Chinua Achebe • C. Ohuruogu


|Eating habits =
The yam is very important to the Igbo as it is their staple crop. There are celebrations such as the New yam festival which are held for the harvesting of the yam. During the festival yam is eaten throughout the communities as celebration. Yam tubers are shown off by individuals as a sign of success and wealth.


Rice has replaced yam for ceremonial occasions. Other foods include cassava, garri, maize and plantains. Soups or stews are included in a typical meal, prepared with a vegetable (such as okra, of which the word derives from the Igbo language, Okwuru) to which pieces of fish, chicken, beef, or goat meat are added. Jollof rice is popular throughout West Africa.


|Initiation ceremony = Boys and girls are initiated into adulthood in a ceremony in which they are given their first clothes, called ''Ima Akwa''. Until that time they are basically naked (and are considered to have nothing to hide until then), with the exception of beads worn for spiritual purposes.


|Shamans = In Igbo society, there are intermediaries between individuals or whole communities and specific deities. Variously called Dibia, Babalawo, etc., the priest usually presides at the altar of a particular deity.


The Igbo believe in reincarnation. People are believed to reincarnate into families that they were part of while alive. Before a relative dies, it is said that the soon to be deceased relative sometimes give clues of who they will reincarnate as in the family. Once a child is born, he or she is believed to give signs of who they have reincarnated from. This can be through behavior, physical traits and statements by the child. A diviner can help in detecting who the child has reincarnated from.


|Living conditions = Before the development of the oil industry in Nigeria, most Igbo people lived in mud huts with thatch roofs. Today, they live in houses made of cement blocks with corrugated iron roofs.


|Religion=Today, the majority of the Igbo people are Christian, well over half of whom are Roman Catholics. There are a small population of Igbo Jews. The ancient Igbo religion and traditions are known as Odinani. In Igbo mythology, which is part of their ancient religion, the supreme God is called Chukwu ("great spirit"); Chukwu created the world and everything in it and is associated with all things on Earth. Chukwu is a solar deity. To the ancient Igbo, the Cosmos was divided into four complex parts: creation, known as Okike; supernatural forces or deities called Alusi; Mmuo, which are spirits; and Uwa, the world.


|Education=The nation of Nigeria has made education a priority, so children receive a universal primary education. Secondary education is rapidly becoming the norm as well.


|Burial=After a death, the body of a prominent member of society is placed on a stool in a sitting posture and is clothed in the deceased's finest garments. Animal sacrifices may be offered to them and they can be well perfumed. Burial usually follows within 24 hours of death. The head of a home is usually buried beneath the floor of his house.


Different types of deaths warrant different types of burials. This is affected by an individual's age, gender and status in society. For example, children are buried in hiding and out of sight, their burials usually take place in the early mornings and late nights. A simple untitled man is buried in front of his house and a simple mother is buried in her place of origin in a garden or a farm-area that belonged to her father. Presently, a majority of the Igbo bury their dead in the western way, although it is not uncommon for burials to be practiced in the traditional Igbo ways.


|Money=
[[File:Stamp Nigeria 1953 0.5p manilla.jpg|thumb|A Stamp depicting Manillas]]
Manillas are ring-like armlets, mostly in bronze or copper, very rarely gold, which served as a form of money or barter coinage and to a degree, ornamentation, amongst certain West African peoples including the Igbo. They also became known as "slave trade money" after the Europeans started using them to acquire slaves for the slave trade into the Americas (as well as England prior to 1807).


|Dress=Traditionally, the attire of the Igbo generally consisted of little clothing as the purpose of clothing originally was to conceal private parts, although elders were fully clothed. Children were usually nude from birth till their adolescence (the time when they were considered to have something to hide) but sometimes ornaments such as beads were worn around the waist for spiritual reasons. Uli body art was used to decorate both men and women in the form of lines forming patterns and shapes on the body.


Women traditionally carry their babies on their backs with a strip of clothing binding the two with a knot at her chest, a practice used by many ethnic groups across Africa. This method has been modernized in the form of the child carrier. In most cases Igbo women did not cover their breast areas. Maidens usually wore a short wrapper with beads around their waist and other ornaments such as necklaces and beads. Both men and women wore wrappers.


Men would wear loin cloths that wrapped round their waist and between their legs to be fastened at their back, the type of clothing appropriate for the intense heat as well as jobs such as farming.


In the same era as the rise of colonial forces in Nigeria, the way the Igbo dressed changed. These changes made the Igbo adopt Westernized clothing such as shirts and trousers. Clothing worn before colonialism became "traditional" and worn on special occasions. The traditional clothing itself became westernized with the introduction of various types of Western clothing including shoes, hats, trousers, etc. Modern Igbo traditional attire, for men, is generally made up of the Isiagu top which resembles the Dashiki worn by other African groups. Isiagu (or Ishi agu) is usually patterned with lions heads embroidered over the clothing and can be a plain color. It is worn with trousers and can be worn with either a traditional title holders hat or with the traditional Igbo stripped men's hat. For women, a puffed sleeve blouse (influenced by European attire) along with two wrappers and a head tie are worn.


|Industry=Growing root crops is the traditional form of employment among the Igbo. However, in modern times the Igbo can be found working in the oil industry, education, business, and construction.


|Location=Southeastern Nigeria.


|Members=Between 24 and 25 million
}}

====Ijaw==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Ijaw
|image = IjoMask1.jpg
|image caption = An Ijaw mask


|Eating habits = Like many ethnic groups in Nigeria, the Ijaws have many local foods that are not widespread in Nigeria. Many of these foods involve fish and other seafoods such as clams, oysters and periwinkles; yams and plantains. Some of these foods are:
* Polofiyai — A very rich soup made with yams and palm oil
* Kekefiyai— A pottage made with chopped unripened (green) plantains, fish, other seafood or game meat ("bushmeat") and palm oil
* Fried or roasted fish and plantain — Fish fried in palm oil and served with fried plantains
* Gbe — The grub of the raffia-palm tree beetle that is eaten raw, dried or pickled in palm oil
* Kalabari "sea-harvest" fulo— A rich mixed seafood soup or stew that is eaten with foofoo, rice or yams


|Initiation ceremony = Among the Okrika tribe of the Ijaw people, when a girl is about 17 years old, she (and the other girls in her community) undergoes a ritual called the ''Iria'', which is a coming-of-age ceremony. This ceremony has elements common to many other initiation ceremonies, including isolation, instruction, transition, and celebration. In former times, a girl was expected to marry immediately following her ''Iria'', but now it is acceptable for a woman to finish her education (including college) before marriage. The ''Iria'' still serves as an indication that a woman is eligible for marriage.


|Shamans = Among the Ijaw, witch doctors are neither admired nor sought. Rather, they are feared, and if a person is suspected of being a witch doctor, his (or her) life could be in mortal danger. Witch doctors are thought to possess the ability to change themselves into animals, such as rats, foxes, goats, pigs, or the like. In this form, the witches can bite people, causing infection, and in some cases death. Witches are considered to be capable of performing almost any evil deed.


|Living conditions = The Ijaw people live by fishing supplemented by farming paddy-rice, plantains, yams, cocoyams, bananas and other vegetables as well as tropical fruits such as guava, mangoes and pineapples; and trading. Smoke-dried fish, timber, palm oil and palm kernels are processed for export. While some clans had powerful chiefs and a stratified society, other clans are believed not to have had any centralized confederacies until the arrival of the British. However, owing to influence of the neighbouring Kingdom of Benin individual communities even in the western Niger Delta also had chiefs and governments at the village level.


|Religion=Although the Ijaw are now primarily Christians (95% profess to be), with Catholicism and Anglicanism being the varieties of Christianity most prevalent among them, the Ijaw have elaborate traditional religious practices of their own. Veneration of ancestors plays a central role in Ijaw traditional religion, while water spirits, known as Owuamapu figure prominently in the Ijaw pantheon. In addition, the Ijaw practice a form of divination called Igbadai, in which recently deceased individuals are interrogated on the causes of their death.


Ijaw religious beliefs hold that water spirits are like humans in having personal strengths and shortcomings, and that humans dwell among the water spirits before being born. The role of prayer in the traditional Ijaw system of belief is to maintain the living in the good graces of the water spirits among whom they dwelt before being born into this world, and each year the Ijaw hold celebrations in honor the spirits lasting for several days. Central to the festivities is the role of masquerades, in which men wearing elaborate outfits and carved masks dance to the beat of drums and manifest the influence of the water spirits through the quality and intensity of their dancing. Particularly spectacular masqueraders are taken to actually be in the possession of the spirits on whose behalf they are dancing.


|Education=Because the government of Nigeria places high importance on education, the Ijaw people receive a universal primary eduction. Secondary schooling is also quite common.


|Burial=When a person dies, the Ijaw consult an oracle to determine whether or not the deceased was a witch or a wizard. If this is found the be the case, the person is buried outside the city. Otherwise, burial takes place within the city.


|Money=Like the Igbo, the Ijaw used Manillas as currency.


|Dress=Ijaws wear flowing robes and wrappers around the waist. They carry walking sticks which are topped with a hat.


|Industry=Being a maritime people, many Ijaws were employed in the merchant shipping sector in the early and mid-20th century (pre-Nigerian independence). With the advent of oil and gas exploration in their territory, some are employed in that sector. Other main occupation are in the civil service of the Nigerian State of Bayelsa where they are predominant.


|Location=Southern Nigeria
|Members=10 million
}}

====Maasai==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Maasai
|image = Maasai women and children.jpg
|image caption =Maasai women and children


|Eating habits = Traditionally, the Maasai diet consisted of meat, milk, and blood from cattle. An ILCA study (Nestel 1989) states: “Today, the staple diet of the Maasai consists of cow's milk and maize-meal. The former is largely drunk fresh or in sweet tea and the latter is used to make a liquid or solid porridge. The solid porridge is known as uoali and is eaten with milk; unlike the liquid porridge, uoali is not prepared with milk. Meat, although an important food, is consumed irregularly and cannot be classified as a staple food. Animal fats or butter are used in cooking, primarily of porridge, maize, and beans. Butter is also an important infant food. Blood is rarely drunk.”


|Initiation ceremony =The central unit of Maasai society is the age-set. Although young boys are sent out with the calves and lambs as soon as they can toddle, childhood for boys is mostly playtime, with the exception of ritual beatings to test courage and endurance. Girls are responsible for chores such as cooking and milking, skills which they learn from their mothers at an early age. Every 15 years or so, a new and individually named generation of Morans or Il-murran (warriors) will be initiated. This involves most boys between 12 and 25, who have reached puberty and are not part of the previous age-set. One rite of passage from boyhood to the status of junior warrior is a painful circumcision ceremony, which is performed without anaesthetic. This ritual is typically performed by the elders, who use a sharpened knife and makeshift cattle hide bandages for the procedure. The Maa word for circumcision is emorata. The boy must endure the operation in silence. Expressions of pain bring dishonor, albeit temporarily. Any exclamations can cause a mistake in the delicate and tedious process, which can result in life-long scarring, dysfunction, and pain. The healing process will take 3–4 months, during which urination is painful and nearly impossible at times, and boys must remain in black cloths for a period of 4–8 months.


During this period, the newly circumcised young men will live in a "manyatta", a "village" built by their mothers. The manyatta has no encircling barricade for protection, emphasizing the warrior role of protecting the community. No inner krall is built, since warriors neither own cattle or undertake stock duties. Further rites of passage are required before achieving the status of senior warrior, culminating in the eunoto ceremony, the "coming of age".


|Shamans = The central human figure in the Maasai religious system is the laibon who may be involved in: shamanistic healing, divination and prophecy, insuring success in war or adequate rainfall. Whatever power an individual laibon had was a function of personality rather than position.


|Living conditions = As a historically nomadic and then semi-nomadic people, the Maasai have traditionally relied on local, readily available materials and indigenous technology to construct their housing. The traditional Maasai house was in the first instance designed for people on the move and was thus very impermanent in nature. The Inkajijik (houses) are either star-shaped or circular, and are constructed by able-bodied women. The structural framework is formed of timber poles fixed directly into the ground and interwoven with a lattice of smaller branches, which is then plastered with a mix of mud, sticks, grass, cow dung and human urine, and ash. The enkaji is small, measuring about 3m x 5m and standing only 1.5m high. Within this space the family cooks, eats, sleeps, socializes and stores food, fuel and other household possessions. Small livestock are also often accommodated within the enkaji. Villages are enclosed in a circular fence (Enkang) built by the men, usually of thorned acacia, a native tree. At night all cows, goats and sheep are placed in an enclosure in the center, safe from wild animals.


|Religion = The Maasai are monotheistic, and they call God Enkai or Engai. Engai is a single deity with a dual nature: Engai Narok (Black God) is benevolent, and Engai Nanyokie (Red God) is vengeful. The "Mountain of God", Ol Doinyo Lengai, is located in northernmost Tanzania. Many Maasai have become Christian, and to a lesser extent, Muslim.


|Education=During the British rule of East Africa, the Maasai engaged in a form passive resistance to preserve their culture. They refused to settle down, take up agriculture, or send their children to be educated by the British. Education was seen as a way to strip them of their culture. Today with environmental pressures mounting, the Maasai are finding that their children need education in order to survive. Maasai Education Discovery (MED) is a non-governmental organization which operates a dual-culture education system. They teach traditional Maasai skills as well as the sorts of things one would expect to learn with a western education (reading, writing, arithmetic).


|Burial=For Maasai living a traditional life, the end of life is virtually without ceremony, and the dead are left out for scavengers. Burial has in the past been reserved for great chiefs, since it is believed to be harmful to the soil.


|Money=Cattle form the basis of nearly all Maasai transactions.


|Dress=Clothing varies by age, sex, and place. Young men, for instance, wear black for several months following their circumcision. However, red is a favored color. Blue, black, striped, and checkered cloth are also worn, as are multicolored African designs. The Maasai began to replace animal-skin, calf hides and sheep skin, with commercial cotton cloth in the 1960s.


Shúkà is the Maa word for sheets traditionally worn wrapped around the body, one over each shoulder, then a third over the top of them. These are typically red, though with some other colors (e.g. blue) and patterns (e.g. plaid.) Pink, even with flowers, is not shunned by warriors. One piece garments known as kanga, a Swahilli term, are common. Maasai near the coast may wear kikoi, a type of sarong that comes in many different colors and textiles. However, the preferred style is stripes.


|Industry=Traditional Maasai lifestyle centers around their cattle which constitutes the primary source of food. The measure of a man's wealth is in terms of cattle and children. A herd of 50 cattle is respectable, and the more children the better. A man who has plenty of one but not the other is considered to be poor. A Maasai myth relates that God gave them all the cattle on earth, leading to the belief that rustling cattle from other tribes is a matter of taking back what is rightfully theirs, a practice that has become much less common.
|Location=The Maasai are a semi-nomadic people located in Kenya and northern Tanzania. Due to their distinctive customs and dress and residence near the many game parks of East Africa, they are among the most well known of African ethnic groups.

|Members=883,000
}}

====Oromo==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Oromo
|image = Nakempte Boys.jpg
|image caption = Oromo boys


|Eating habits = Ethoipian cuisine remains a mystery to most of the world because visitors (who are most often European) are most often fed European cuisine. The Oromo believe it is rude to eat food in front of someone else who is not eating, and thus, food is not prepared in the streets.


|Initiation ceremony =In a short article, Geoffrey W. Arnott described an Oromo rite of passage in which young men run over the backs of bulls surrounded by the village community. Bruce Parry filmed the same practice among the Hamar people for his BBC television series "Tribe" transmitted in July 2006.


|Shamans = Qallu is a name given to the families who are believed to be descents of Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, the first Caliph of Islam, and who are now living in many areas of Eastern Ethiopia. The Qallu are so named by Somali, Oromo and Harari peoples; within each of these ethnic groups, there is a tribe called "Qallu". The term means "people of the religion" because they were the first to bring Islam to their respective areas; on the other hand, the Oromos use the word as "a negotiator between mankind and God". The Qallu inhabit Hararghe, Ogaden, and Dire Dawa as well as the Republics of Somalia and Djibouti. In Somalia, it is also said that Qallu are related with Sheekhaal Clan or they are part of the larger Fiqi Omar Clan.


|Living conditions = About 95% are settled agriculturalists and nomadic pastoralists, practising archaic farming methods and living at subsistence level. A few live in the urban centres.


|Religion=In the 2007 Ethiopian census in the 88% Oromo region of Oromia, 47% were Islamic, 30% Orthodox Christians, 17.7% Protestant Christian, 3.3% Traditional, and the remaining 1.6% constitute other religious groups. Protestant Christianity is the fastest growing religion inside the Oromo community. In urban areas of Oromia, Othodox Christianity constitute 67.8% of the population, followed by Islam 24% and Protestants 7%. But adherence to traditional practices and rituals is still common among many Oromo people regardless of religious background.


|Education=In Oromia, the educational system is virtually non-existent because schools do not have adequate supplies. Further, the lack of experienced teachers and lack of transportation places additional hampers on education. There are not enough schools or libraries, either in existence or being built, so children who live far away cannot hope to receive a formal education.


|Burial=When an Oromo person dies, the body is washed and tied into a fetal position. The body is then wrapped in a perfumed mat. The intestines are removed from the body of an elite person, whose burial is done in private to preserve the idea that they are not physically mortal. Graves are generally {{units|2 to 2.5 meters|6 to 8 feet}} deep. The body is covered with stones, which are placed on the grave in symbolically important arrangements. Each child of the deceased places a stone on the grave in birth order, and thus, the circle of stones represents each of the deceased person's children. Other people also place stones on the grave, and a person's importance is measured by how many people placed stones there. The family of the deceased will shave their heads in mourning.


|Money=The Oromo use the Ethiopian Birr as their currency.


|Dress=The Oromo economy is based on livestock, and traditional Oromo dress reflects this, featuring leather and beads. During festivals, men may wear a headdress mande from a lion's mane or baboon skin, and carry a shield covered with the hide of a hippo.


|Industry=About 95% are settled agriculturalists and nomadic pastoralists, practicing archaic farming methods and living at subsistence level.


|Location=The Oromo are found in Ethiopia, in northern Kenya, and to a lesser extent in parts of Somalia.
|Members=Over 31 million
}}

====Shona==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Shona
|image = Shona witch doctor (Zimbabwe).jpg
|image caption = Shona religious priest and healer


|Eating habits = The majority of Zimbabweans depend on a few staple foods. Meat, beef and to a lesser extent chicken are especially popular, though consumption has declined under the Mugabe regime due to falling incomes. "Mealie meal" (cornmeal) is used to prepare sadza or isitshwala and bota or ilambazi. Sadza is a porridge made by mixing the cornmeal with water to produce a thick paste. After the paste has been cooking for several minutes, more cornmeal is added to thicken the paste. This is eaten as lunch and dinner, usually with greens (such as spinach, chomolia, collard greens), beans and meat that has been stewed, grilled, or roasted. Sadza is also commonly eaten with curdled milk, commonly known as lacto (mukaka wakakora), or dried Tanganyika sardine, known locally as kapenta or matemba. Bota is a thinner porridge, cooked without the additional cornmeal and usually flavoured with peanut butter, milk, butter, or, sometimes, jam. Bota is usually eaten for breakfast.


|Initiation ceremony =Traditional rites of passage among the Shona are rarely practiced in modern times, having been supplanted by western ceremonies such as baptism an dbirthday celebrations. However, some Shona still practice a ceremony initiating a boy into manhood. In this ceremony, the boy undergoes a public circumcision.


|Shamans = Shona healers are called ''nganga''. ''Nganga'' primarily use two forms of divination to determine the cause of an illness (or other misfortune). One form of divination is called ''Hakata'', in which the nganga consults a set of charms, each of which has its own significance. The other form is ''possession'' in which the nganga causes the petitioner to enter a state of hypnosis. While in this state, anything the petitioner says is interpreted as having come from a spirit.


|Living conditions = According to the United Nations World Health Organisation, the life expectancy for men is 37 years and the life expectancy for women is 34 years of age, the lowest in the world in 2006. The HIV infection rate in Zimbabwe was estimated to be 20.1% for people aged 15–49 in 2006. UNESCO reported a decline in HIV prevalence among pregnant women from 26% in 2002 to 21% in 2004.


|Religion=Sixty two percent of Zimbabweans attend Christian religious services. The largest Christian churches are Anglican, Roman Catholic, Seventh-day Adventist, and Methodist. However like most former European colonies, Christianity is often mixed with enduring traditional beliefs. Besides Christianity, ancestral worship is the most practiced non-Christian religion which involves ancestor worship and spiritual intercession; the Mbira Dza Vadzimu, which means "Voice of the Ancestors", an instrument related to many lamellophones ubiquitous throughout Africa, is central to many ceremonial proceedings. Mwari simply means "God the Creator" ("musika vanhu" in Shona). Around 1% of the population is Muslim.


|Education=Zimbabwe has an adult literacy rate of approximately 90% which is amongst the highest in Africa. Since 1995 the adult literacy rate of Zimbabwe has steadily decreased, a trend shared by other African countries.


The wealthier portion of the population usually send their children to independent schools as opposed to the government-run schools which are attended by the majority as these are subsidised by the government. School education was made free in 1980, but since 1988, the government has steadily increased the charges attached to school enrollment until they now greatly exceed the real value of fees in 1980. The Ministry of Education of Zimbabwe maintains and operates the government schools but the fees charged by independent schools are regulated by the cabinet of Zimbabwe.


Zimbabwe's education system consists of 7 years of primary and 6 years of secondary schooling before students can enter university in the country or abroad. The academic year in Zimbabwe runs from January to December, with three month terms, broken up by one month holidays, with a total of 40 weeks of school per year. National examinations are written during the third term in November, with "O" level and "A" level subjects also offered in June.


|Burial=People of the same clan use a common set of totems. A person with a different totem cannot initiate burial of the deceased. A person of the same totem even when coming from a different tribe, can initiate burial of the deceased. For example a Ndebele of the Mpofu totem can initiate burial of a Shona of the Mhofu totem and that is perfectly acceptable in Shona tradition. But a Shona of a different totem cannot perform the ritual functions required to initiate burial of the deceased.


If a person initiates the burial of a person of a different totem, he runs the risk of being asked to pay a fine to the family of the deceased. Such fines traditionally were paid with cattle or goats but nowadays substantial amounts of money can be asked for.


|Money=The official unit of currency is the Zimbabwean dolloar. Although it is still the official currency, the United States dollar, South African rand, Botswanan pula, Pound sterling and Euro are mostly used instead as the local currency is practically worthless. The US Dollar has been adopted as the official currency for all government transactions with the new power-sharing regime.


Inflation rose from an annual rate of 32% in 1998 to an IMF estimate of 150,000% in December 2007, and to an official estimated high of 231,000,000% in July 2008 according to the country's Central Statistical Office. This represented a state of hyperinflation, and the central bank introduced a new 100 billion dollar note. As of November 2008, unofficial figures put Zimbabwe's annual inflation rate at 516 quintillion per cent, with prices doubling every 1.3 days. Zimbabwe's inflation crisis is now (2009) the second worst inflation spike in history, behind the hyperinflationary crisis of Hungary in 1946, in which prices doubled every 15.6 hours. By 2005, the purchasing power of the average Zimbabwean had dropped to the same levels in real terms as 1953. Local residents have largely resorted to buying essentials from neighbouring Botswana, South Africa and Zambia.


|Dress=Today the Shona dress in western clothing. In the 19th century the men wore breech clothes of animal hide.


|Industry=The Shona were traditionally agricultural, growing beans, peanuts, corn, pumpkins, and sweet potatoes. Mineral exports, agriculture, and tourism are the main foreign currency earners of Zimbabwe. The mining sector remains very lucrative, with some of the world's largest platinum reserves being mined by Anglo-American and Impala Platinum. Zimbabwe is the biggest trading partner of South Africa on the continent.


|Location=Zimbabwe and southern Mozambique. A small group of Shona speaking migrants of the late 1800s also live in Zambia, in the Zambezi valley, in Chieftainess Chiawa's area.
|Members=9 million
}}

====Tuareg==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name =Tuareg
|image = Tuareg2.JPG
|image caption =Tuareg from the Hoggar (Algeria) wearing the classical indigo turban.

|Eating habits = The Tuareg diet consists mostly of grains supplemented with fruits such as dates and melons (when in season), and milk and cheese. Meat is reserved for special occasions.


|Initiation ceremony = When a male turns 18 years old, he receives a veil to wear over his face. The veil is wrapped around his face by the marabout (see below) in a special ritual. Once a man gets his veil, he is considered eligible for marriage.


|Shamans = After the adoption of Islam, a separate class of religious clerics, the Ineslemen or marabouts, also became integral to Tuareg social structure. Following the decimation of many clans' noble Imajaghan caste in the colonial wars of the 19th and 20th centuries, the Ineslemen gained leadership in some clans, despite their often servile origins. Traditionally Ineslemen clans were not armed. They provided spiritual guidance for the nobility, and received protection and alms in return.


|Living conditions = The oldest legends says Tuarerg once lived in grottoes, akazam, and then they lived in folliage beds made on the top acacia trees, tasagesaget, to avoid numerous wild animal during old times and even to this day to escape from mosquitoes. Other kinds of traditional housing include:
* ahaket: Tuareg goatskin red tent
* tafala: a shade made of millet sticks
* akarban also called takabart: temporary hat for winter season
* ategham: hat for hot season
* taghazamt: adobe house for long stay


|Religion = The Tuareg are predominantly Muslim and generally follow the Maliki madhhab, one of the four schools of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam.


|Education=Until recently, the Tuareg resisted sending their children to secular schools out of distrust of the government. Today most children finish primary school, and some go on to university.


|Burial=The dead are buried as soon as possible. The funeral is presided over by the marabout, and is followed by ''iwichken'' (condolences).


|Money=The Tuareg use modern currency.


|Dress=Unlike in many other Muslim societies, women do not traditionally wear the veil, whereas men do. The most famous Tuareg symbol is the Tagelmust (also called éghéwed in Malian Tamasheq, or referred to as a Cheche, pronounced "Shesh", from Berber), an often indigo blue-colored veil called Alasho. The men's facial covering originates from the belief that such action wards off evil spirits. It may have related instrumentally from the need for protection from the harsh desert sands as well. It is a firmly established tradition, as is the wearing of amulets containing verses from the Qur'an. Taking on the veil is associated with the rite of passage to manhood; men begin wearing a veil when they reach maturity. The veil usually conceals their face, excluding their eyes and the top of the nose.


|Industry=The Tuareg are a pastoral people, having an economy based on livestock breeding, trading, and agriculture. Since Prehistoric times Tuareg peoples and their Berber ancestors (the Garamantes) have been organising caravans for trading across the Sahara desert. They also operate salt mines.


|Location=The Tuareg people inhabit a large area, covering almost all the middle and western Sahara and the north-central Sahel. In Tuareg terms, the Sahara is not one desert but many, so they call it Tinariwen ("the Deserts"). Among the many deserts in Africa, there is the true desert Tenere. Other deserts are more and less arid, flat and mountainous: Adrar, Tagant, Tawat (Touat) Tanezruft, Adghagh n Fughas, Tamasna, Azawagh, Adar, Damargu, Tagama, Manga, Ayr, Tarramit (Termit), Kawar, Djado, Tadmait, Admer, Igharghar, Ahaggar, Tassili N'Ajjer, Tadrart, Idhan, Tanghart, Fezzan, Tibesti, Kalansho, Libyan Desert, etc.


|Members=5.2 million
}}

====Xhosa==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name =Xhosa
|image = Xhosa-children.JPG
|image caption = Xhosa children


|Eating habits = The Xhosa settled on mountain slopes of the Amatola and the Winterberg Mountains. Many streams drain into great rivers of this Xhosa territory including the Kei and Fish Rivers. Rich soils and plentiful rainfall make the river basins good for farming and grazing making cattle important and the basis of wealth.


Traditional foods include beef (''Inyama yenkomo''), mutton (''Inyama yegusha''), and goat meat, sorghum, maize and dry maize porridge (''umphokoqo''), ''"umngqusho"'' (made from dried, stamped corn and dried beans), milk (often fermented, called ''amasi''), pumpkins (''amathanga''), beans (''iimbotyi''), and vegetables.


|Initiation ceremony =One traditional ritual that is still regularly practiced is the manhood ritual, a secret rite that marks the transition from boyhood to adulthood (Ulwaluko). After ritual circumcision the initiates (abakwetha) live in isolation for up to several weeks, often in the mountains. During the process of healing they smear white clay on their bodies and observe numerous taboos.


|Shamans = Traditional Xhosa culture includes diviners known as amagqirha, who serve as herbalists, prophets, and healers for the community. This job is mostly taken by women, who spend five years in apprenticeship.


The Xhosas have a strong oral tradition with many stories of ancestral heroes; according to tradition, the leader from whose name the Xhosa people take their name was the first human on Earth. Other traditions have it that all Xhosas are descended from one ancestor named Tshawe.


The key figure in the Xhosa oral tradition is the imbongi (plural: iimbongi) or praise singer. Iimbongi traditionally live close to the chief's "great place" (the cultural and political focus of his activity); they accompany the chief on important occasions - the imbongi Zolani Mkiva preceded Nelson Mandela at his Presidential inauguration in 1994. Iimbongis' poetry, called imibongo, praises the actions and adventures of chiefs and ancestors.


|Living conditions = The Xhosa include both the poorest and the richest members of South African society. The poor live in thatched-roof round huts, and in labor camps, while the wealthiest live in modern houses in suburban neighborhoods.


|Religion = The supreme being is called uThixo or uQamata. Ancestors act as intermediaries and play a part in the lives of the living; they are honoured in rituals. Dreams play an important role in divination and contact with ancestors. Traditional religious practice features rituals, initiations, and feasts. Modern rituals typically pertain to matters of illness and psychological well-being.


Christian missionaries established outposts among the Xhosa in the 1820s, and the first Bible translation was in the mid-1850s, partially done by Henry Hare Dugmore. Xhosa did not convert in great numbers until the 1900s, but now many are Christian, particularly within the African Initiated Churches such as the Zion Christian Church. Some denominations combine Christianity with traditional beliefs.


|Education=Education in primary-schools serving Xhosa-speaking communities is in the Xhosa language, but this is replaced by English after the early primary grades. Xhosa is still considered as a studied subject, however, and it is possible to major in Xhosa at the university level.


|Burial=Xhosa homesteads once featured a cattle kraal, and a chief was traditionally buried in the center of this. Other people were buried outside the villages.


|Money=In old times, the Xhosa used cattle as money, but these days they use modern currency.


|Dress=Xhosa today have adopted the modern, Western style of clothing. It has recently become acceptable for women to wear slacks.


|Industry=Prior to the end of Apartheid, most Xhosa men were employed as miners, and women worked on farms or as domestic servants. Those with the education work in the healthcare, education, and in the government.


|Location=The Xhosa are people living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central-southern parts of the country.

|Members=7.9 million (2001 estimate)
}}
====Yoruba==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Yoruba
|image = Kwarastatedrummers.jpg
|image caption = These drummers were part of a large celebration marking the arrival of running water to their village, Ojumo Oro, Kwara State, Nigeria.
|Eating habits =
|Initiation ceremony =
|Shamans =
|Living conditions =
|Religion=Yoruba religion and mythology is a major influence in West Africa, chiefly in Nigeria, and it has given origin to several New World religions such as Santería in Cuba, Puerto Rico and Candomblé in Brazil.


The popularly known Vodou religion of Haiti combines the religious beliefs of the many different African ethnic nationalities taken to the island with the structure and liturgy from the Fon-Ewe of present-day Benin and the Congo-Angolan culture area, but Yoruba-derived religious ideology and deities also play an important role.


Yoruba deities include "Ọya" (wind/storm), "Ifá" (divination or fate), "Ẹlẹda" (destiny), Orisha or Orisa "Ibeji" (twin), "Ọsanyin" (medicines and healing) and "Ọsun" (goddess of fertility, protector of children and mothers), Sango (God of thunder).


Human beings and other sentient creatures are also assumed to have their own individual deity of destiny, called "Ori", who is venerated through a sculpture symbolically decorated with cowrie shells. Traditionally, dead parents and other ancestors are also believed to possess powers of protection over their descendants. This belief is expressed in veneration and sacrifice on the grave or symbol of the ancestor, or as a community in the observance of the Egungun festival where the ancestors are represented as a colorful masquerade of costumed and masked men who represent the ancestral spirits. Dead parents and ancestors are also commonly venerated by pouring libations to the earth and the breaking of kolanuts in their honor at special occasions.


Today, many contemporary Yoruba are active Christians (60%) and Muslims (30%), yet retain many of the moral and cultural concepts of their traditional faith.
|Education=
|Burial=
|Money=
|Dress=
|Industry=
|Location=Nigeria, Benin, and Togo
|Members=Over 30 million
}}

====Zulu==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Zulu
|image = AAC Worshippers.jpg
|image caption = Zulu worshippers at an African Apostolic Church, near Oribi Gorge


|Eating habits = In the precolonial period, indigenous cuisine was characterized by the use of a very wide range of fruits, nuts, bulbs, leaves and other products gathered from wild plants and by the hunting of wild game. The domestication of cattle in the region about two thousand years ago by Khoisan groups enabled the use of milk products and the availability of fresh meat on demand. However, during the colonial period the seizure of communal land in South Africa restricted and discouraged traditional agriculture and wild harvesting, and reduced the extent of land available to black people.


|Initiation ceremony =Boys between the ages of 16-18 were taken to an isolated area and housed in grass huts. During their stay, no one was allowed to see them other than a small group of older women who were there to give them food and watch over them. The boys are given a small item of clothing, which is the only thing they were prior to their circumcision. After the circumcision, they are given a new set of clothing made from leather, and return to their village where they are considered to have entered manhood.


The initiation ceremony for girls began as soon as she began menstruation. She would gather the roots of a certain shrub and use it to make a porridge which she would eat exclusively for seven days. During this time, and for the enxt three months or so, she was confined to her mother's hut. During this time she was to learn to perform several tasks expected of women, including basket weaving and making beaded clothing. She was allowed to have one friend come and stay with her during this time. She was not allowed to be seen by anyone other than her mother and this friend. Her sisters would make her a new outfit from twisted grass, and at the end of the three months, she would put this on, be presented to the village, and she and her friend and sisters would dance and sing, celebrating the end of her initiation. On the following day, the grass outfit would be burned, signifying that the girl had become a woman.


|Shamans = ''Inyanga'' (literally "the man of the trees") is a Zulu word for a traditional healer.


Although the word ''sangoma'' is generally used in South African English to mean all types of traditional Southern African healers, inyangas and sangomas are in fact different. An inyanga is an herbalist who is concerned with medicines made from plants and animals, while a sangoma relies primarily on divination for healing purposes. The knowledge of the inyanga is passed through the generations from parent to child.


In modern society the status of these medicine men or women has been translated into wealth. Most izinyanga (plural of inyanga) in urban areas have shops with consulting rooms where they sell their medicines.


|Living conditions = The modern Zulu population is fairly evenly distributed in both urban and rural areas. Although KwaZulu-Natal is still their heartland, large numbers have been attracted to the relative economic prosperity of Gauteng province.


|Religion=Most Zulu people state their beliefs to be Christian. Some of the most common churches to which they belong are African Initiated Churches, especially the Zion Christian Church and various Apostolic Churches, although membership of major European Churches, such as the Dutch Reformed, Anglican and Catholic Churches is also common. Nevertheless, many Zulus retain their traditional pre-Christian belief system of ancestor worship in parallel with their Christianity.


Zulu religion includes belief in a creator God (Nkulunkulu) who is above interacting in day-to-day human affairs, although this belief appears to have originated from efforts by early Christian missionaries to frame the idea of the Christian God in Zulu terms. Traditionally, the more strongly held Zulu belief was in ancestor spirits (Amatongo or Amadhlozi), who had the power to intervene in people's lives, for good or ill. This belief continues to be widespread among the modern Zulu population.


|Education=Illiteracy is high among the Zulu, though with the formation of the post-Apartheid goverment, this is changing. Children attend school starting at age 7 and continue sometimes until they are 24 (though not continuously). Many children take long breaks during their school years. Graduation is considered a very high achievement.


|Burial=The Zulus burn all the belongings of the deceased to prevent them from returning to haunt the living.


|Money=Prior to colonialization, the Zulu used cattle as currency. Today they use the South African rand.


|Dress=Traditional male clothing is usually light, consisting of a two-part apron (similar to a loincloth) used to cover the genitals and buttocks. The front piece is called the umutsha, and is usually made of springbok or other animal hide twisted into different bands. The rear piece, called the ibheshu, is made of a single piece of springbok or cattle hide, and its length is usually used as an indicator of age and social position; longer amabheshu (plural of ibheshu) are worn by older men. Married men will usually also wear a headband, called the umqhele, which is usually also made of springbok hide, or leopard hide by men of higher social status, such as chiefs. Zulu men will also wear cow tails as bracelets and anklets called imishokobezi during ceremonies and rituals, such as weddings or dances.


|Industry=Sugar refining is the main industry. Sheep, cattle, dairy, citrus fruits, corn, sorghum, cotton, bananas, and pineapples are also raised. In addition to sugar refining, industries (located mainly in and around Durban) include textile, clothing, chemicals, rubber, fertilizer, paper, vehicle assembly and food-processing plants, tanneries, and oil refineries. There are large aluminum-smelting plants at Richards Bay, on the north coast.


|Location=Most Zulu live in the province of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Small numbers also live in Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Mozambique.


|Members=An estimated 10-11 million
}}


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Hopefully you can find and tell a folk story for the tribe you studied, but here is an example.
===How the Monkeys Saved the Fish=== 
This is a traditional Tanzanian folktale.


;Story: It was the rainy season, and the river had flooded its banks. The animals were all fleeing for their lives as the river rushed down and carried everything away. Many animals died in the flood, but not the monkeys. Because of their great agility, the monkeys were able to climb the trees and escape the flood waters. As they sat in the trees, they noticed the fish swimming in the current.


:The monkeys were very concerned about the fish, saying "Unless we do something, these fish are going to drown!" So the monkeys decided to make their way to the edge of the river where the water was not so deep. "From there, we will be able to save these legless creatures." The monkey's set about their task, grabbing the fish from the river and heaping them in a great pile. When they were finished they saw that the fish were all motionless. "The fish are sleeping now because they are so tired. They struggled against us because they did not know our good intentions." they said to one another. "When they awake, they will be so happy that we saved them."


;Moral: Before you can help someone, you must understand their situation.


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Unless you live in Africa or are able to visit there, this requirement may end up costing a substantial amount of money. It may also take a prolonged amount of time to complete your collection. If you would like to shop for African objects online, we recommend that you apply the following terms to an Internet search engine:
*Africa+gifts
*Africa+crafts
*Africa+imports
*African+artisans
If you live in a large city (or near one), you may be able to find a local shop specializing in African imports. You could also check for a museum of African history and check their gift shop. If you know some immigrants from Africa, you may be able to trade with them.


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==References== 
*http://www.everyculture.com/wc/Mauritania-to-Nigeria/Tuareg.html
*http://www.everyculture.com/wc/Rwanda-to-Syria/Xhosa.html
*http://www.everyculture.com/wc/Costa-Rica-to-Georgia/Amhara.html
*http://www.selamta.net/culture.htm


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AY Honors/African Lore/Answer Key

2021-03-09T21:28:56Z

BoisSar:

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|stage=100
|honorname=African Lore
|skill=1
|year=2001
|category=Arts and Crafts
|authority=General Conference
|reqpdf=African_Lore_Requirements.pdf
|insignia=African-Lore.png
}}
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The answers for requirement two include information about the location of the tribes described. We suggest that you consult a map of Africa and using the information presented below, locate the areas where ten tribes are today. Requirement two also provides many outstanding features of the tribes described.


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There are thousands of tribes in Africa, and we will not pretend to describe them all. Rather, we will present a small handful of the largest tribes here, and even then, not with much detail. If an African tribe not described here interests you, you are encouraged to research it. If you like, you can add your research to this Wikibook.


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====Acholi==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Acholi
|image = Ugandan_children.jpg
|image caption = Children displaced by the insurgency of the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) of northern Uganda into Labuje camp near Kitgum Town.
|Eating habits =
|Initiation ceremony =
|Shamans =
|Living conditions = Their traditional dwelling-places were circular huts with a high peak, furnished with a mud sleeping-platform, jars of grain and a sunk fireplace, with the walls daubed with mud and decorated with geometrical or conventional designs in red, white or grey.
|Religion=Most Acholi are Protestant, Catholic and, in lesser numbers, Muslim. Nevertheless, the traditional belief in guardian and ancestor spirits remains strong, though it is now often described in Christian or Islamic terms.
|Education=
|Burial=When a man dies he is buried near the entrance of his hut. The grave is left open and guarded by a young person until it begins to decompose. At that time, it is considered safe to bury the corpse. After burial, a fence is erected around the grave, and trees are planted on top of it. The Acholi consider it unfortunate for a man to die of natural causes. It is considered lucky for a man to die while hunting or while fighting a war, even though the body is left unburied in these cases, left for the vultures.
|Money=
|Dress=
|Industry=
|Location=Southern Sudan, Northern Uganda
|Members=750,000
}}

====Amhara==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Amhara
|image = Adi Arkay.jpg
|image caption = A street in Adi Arkay with a view to the Simien Mountains in the background (Amhara Region, Ethiopia).


|Eating habits = Barley, corn, millet, wheat, sorghum, and teff, along with beans, peppers, chickpeas, and other vegetables, are the most important crops. In the highlands one crop per year is normal, while in the lowlands two are possible. Cattle, sheep, and goats are also raised.


|Initiation ceremony = The Amhara consider it dishonorable for a man to marry a woman who is not a virgin. Therefore, girls were until recently married shortly after beginning menstruation.


|Shamans = The Amhara have priests to administer their religious rites.


|Living conditions = About 90 percent of the Amhara are rural and make their living through farming, mostly in the Ethiopian highlands. Prior to the 1974 Ethiopian Revolution, absentee landlords maintained strict control over their sharecropping tenants, often allowing them to accumulate crippling debt. After 1974, the landlords were replaced by local government officials, who play a similar role.


|Religion=The predominant religion of the Amhara for centuries has been Christianity, with the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church playing a central role in the culture of the country. According to the 1994 census, 81.5 percent of the population of the Amhara region (which is 91.2 percent Amhara) were Ethiopian Orthodox; 18.1 percent were Muslim, and 0.1 percent were Protestant ("P'ent'ay"). The Ethiopian Orthodox Church maintains close links with the Egyptian Coptic Church. Easter and Epiphany are the most important celebrations, marked with services, feasting and dancing. There are also many fast days throughout the year, when only vegetables or fish may be eaten.


|Education=Today, most Amhara are educated in secular schools, but in the past, education was the duty of the church.


|Burial= The body is washed, wrapped in funeral clothing, and carried to the church in a straw mat. The body is generally buried withing 24 hours of death.


|Money=
[[File:Birr.JPG|thumb|200px|Ethopian birr]]
The ''birr'' is the unit of currency in Ethiopia. Before 1976, dollar was the official English translation of birr. Today, it is officially birr in English as well.


|Dress=The Amhara live at high altitudes ({{units|2100-4200 meters|7000-14000 feet}}), so their clothing is designed to be warm. In modern times, the Amhara dress in western clothing manufactured in Asia. Some still prefer traditional clothing, which consists of jodphurs and a shirt, with an outer garment called a ''gabi''.


|Industry=Most people are employed in agricultural pursuits, but many also run businesses, trading all sorts of goods.


|Location=Ethiopia


|Members=19.8 million
}}

====Fula==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Fula
|image = Peul women in Paoua.jpg
|image caption = Fula women


|Eating habits = Dairy is an important part of the diet, including milk, yogurt, and butter. Their main meal of the day will feature a porridge made from grain (millet, sorghum, or corn).


|Initiation ceremony =The ''Guérewol'' is an annual courtship ritual competition among the Wodaabe Fula people of Niger. Young men dressed in elaborate ornamentation and made up in traditional face painting gather in lines to dance and sing, vying for the attentions of marriageable young women.


|Shamans = Similar to spiritual leaders, the imam is the one who leads the prayer during Islamic gatherings. More often the community turns to the mosque imam, if they have an Islamic question. In smaller communities an imam could be the community leader based on the community setting.


|Living conditions = The Fulani are traditionally a nomadic, pastoralist, trading people, herding cattle, goats and sheep across the vast dry hinterlands of their domain, keeping somewhat separate from the local agricultural populations.


|Religion=Over 99% of the Fula people practice Islam.


|Education=Children are educated by their parents and by older siblings. They also attend Koranic schools where they learn the scriptures and teachings of Islam.


|Burial=The body is washed, wrapped in a scented cotton shroud, and buried. After three days, alms are given to Koranic students, the sick, and the poor.


|Money=


|Dress=The traditional dress of the Fula in most places consists of long colorful flowing robes, modestly embroidered or otherwise decorated.


|Industry=Nomadic Fula men tend cattle. Some hold jobs in the cities as teachers and businessmen.


|Location=The Fula are an ethnic group of people spread over many countries, predominantly in West Africa, but found also in Central Africa and Sudanese North Africa. The countries in Africa where they are present include Mauritania, Senegal, Guinea, The Gambia, Mali, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Benin, Burkina Faso, Guinea Bissau, Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, Niger, Chad, Togo, the Central African Republic, Ghana, Liberia, and as far as Sudan in the east. Fula people form a minority in every country they live, but in Guinea they represent a plurality of the population (40%).


|Members=Over 6 million
}}

====Igbo==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Igbo
|image = Igbo people.jpg
|image caption = O. Equiano • Jaja of Opobo • Chinua Achebe • C. Ohuruogu


|Eating habits =
The yam is very important to the Igbo as it is their staple crop. There are celebrations such as the New yam festival which are held for the harvesting of the yam. During the festival yam is eaten throughout the communities as celebration. Yam tubers are shown off by individuals as a sign of success and wealth.


Rice has replaced yam for ceremonial occasions. Other foods include cassava, garri, maize and plantains. Soups or stews are included in a typical meal, prepared with a vegetable (such as okra, of which the word derives from the Igbo language, Okwuru) to which pieces of fish, chicken, beef, or goat meat are added. Jollof rice is popular throughout West Africa.


|Initiation ceremony = Boys and girls are initiated into adulthood in a ceremony in which they are given their first clothes, called ''Ima Akwa''. Until that time they are basically naked (and are considered to have nothing to hide until then), with the exception of beads worn for spiritual purposes.


|Shamans = In Igbo society, there are intermediaries between individuals or whole communities and specific deities. Variously called Dibia, Babalawo, etc., the priest usually presides at the altar of a particular deity.


The Igbo believe in reincarnation. People are believed to reincarnate into families that they were part of while alive. Before a relative dies, it is said that the soon to be deceased relative sometimes give clues of who they will reincarnate as in the family. Once a child is born, he or she is believed to give signs of who they have reincarnated from. This can be through behavior, physical traits and statements by the child. A diviner can help in detecting who the child has reincarnated from.


|Living conditions = Before the development of the oil industry in Nigeria, most Igbo people lived in mud huts with thatch roofs. Today, they live in houses made of cement blocks with corrugated iron roofs.


|Religion=Today, the majority of the Igbo people are Christian, well over half of whom are Roman Catholics. There are a small population of Igbo Jews. The ancient Igbo religion and traditions are known as Odinani. In Igbo mythology, which is part of their ancient religion, the supreme God is called Chukwu ("great spirit"); Chukwu created the world and everything in it and is associated with all things on Earth. Chukwu is a solar deity. To the ancient Igbo, the Cosmos was divided into four complex parts: creation, known as Okike; supernatural forces or deities called Alusi; Mmuo, which are spirits; and Uwa, the world.


|Education=The nation of Nigeria has made education a priority, so children receive a universal primary education. Secondary education is rapidly becoming the norm as well.


|Burial=After a death, the body of a prominent member of society is placed on a stool in a sitting posture and is clothed in the deceased's finest garments. Animal sacrifices may be offered to them and they can be well perfumed. Burial usually follows within 24 hours of death. The head of a home is usually buried beneath the floor of his house.


Different types of deaths warrant different types of burials. This is affected by an individual's age, gender and status in society. For example, children are buried in hiding and out of sight, their burials usually take place in the early mornings and late nights. A simple untitled man is buried in front of his house and a simple mother is buried in her place of origin in a garden or a farm-area that belonged to her father. Presently, a majority of the Igbo bury their dead in the western way, although it is not uncommon for burials to be practiced in the traditional Igbo ways.


|Money=
[[File:Stamp Nigeria 1953 0.5p manilla.jpg|thumb|A Stamp depicting Manillas]]
Manillas are ring-like armlets, mostly in bronze or copper, very rarely gold, which served as a form of money or barter coinage and to a degree, ornamentation, amongst certain West African peoples including the Igbo. They also became known as "slave trade money" after the Europeans started using them to acquire slaves for the slave trade into the Americas (as well as England prior to 1807).


|Dress=Traditionally, the attire of the Igbo generally consisted of little clothing as the purpose of clothing originally was to conceal private parts, although elders were fully clothed. Children were usually nude from birth till their adolescence (the time when they were considered to have something to hide) but sometimes ornaments such as beads were worn around the waist for spiritual reasons. Uli body art was used to decorate both men and women in the form of lines forming patterns and shapes on the body.


Women traditionally carry their babies on their backs with a strip of clothing binding the two with a knot at her chest, a practice used by many ethnic groups across Africa. This method has been modernized in the form of the child carrier. In most cases Igbo women did not cover their breast areas. Maidens usually wore a short wrapper with beads around their waist and other ornaments such as necklaces and beads. Both men and women wore wrappers.


Men would wear loin cloths that wrapped round their waist and between their legs to be fastened at their back, the type of clothing appropriate for the intense heat as well as jobs such as farming.


In the same era as the rise of colonial forces in Nigeria, the way the Igbo dressed changed. These changes made the Igbo adopt Westernized clothing such as shirts and trousers. Clothing worn before colonialism became "traditional" and worn on special occasions. The traditional clothing itself became westernized with the introduction of various types of Western clothing including shoes, hats, trousers, etc. Modern Igbo traditional attire, for men, is generally made up of the Isiagu top which resembles the Dashiki worn by other African groups. Isiagu (or Ishi agu) is usually patterned with lions heads embroidered over the clothing and can be a plain color. It is worn with trousers and can be worn with either a traditional title holders hat or with the traditional Igbo stripped men's hat. For women, a puffed sleeve blouse (influenced by European attire) along with two wrappers and a head tie are worn.


|Industry=Growing root crops is the traditional form of employment among the Igbo. However, in modern times the Igbo can be found working in the oil industry, education, business, and construction.


|Location=Southeastern Nigeria.


|Members=Between 24 and 25 million
}}

====Ijaw==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Ijaw
|image = IjoMask1.jpg
|image caption = An Ijaw mask


|Eating habits = Like many ethnic groups in Nigeria, the Ijaws have many local foods that are not widespread in Nigeria. Many of these foods involve fish and other seafoods such as clams, oysters and periwinkles; yams and plantains. Some of these foods are:
* Polofiyai — A very rich soup made with yams and palm oil
* Kekefiyai— A pottage made with chopped unripened (green) plantains, fish, other seafood or game meat ("bushmeat") and palm oil
* Fried or roasted fish and plantain — Fish fried in palm oil and served with fried plantains
* Gbe — The grub of the raffia-palm tree beetle that is eaten raw, dried or pickled in palm oil
* Kalabari "sea-harvest" fulo— A rich mixed seafood soup or stew that is eaten with foofoo, rice or yams


|Initiation ceremony = Among the Okrika tribe of the Ijaw people, when a girl is about 17 years old, she (and the other girls in her community) undergoes a ritual called the ''Iria'', which is a coming-of-age ceremony. This ceremony has elements common to many other initiation ceremonies, including isolation, instruction, transition, and celebration. In former times, a girl was expected to marry immediately following her ''Iria'', but now it is acceptable for a woman to finish her education (including college) before marriage. The ''Iria'' still serves as an indication that a woman is eligible for marriage.


|Shamans = Among the Ijaw, witch doctors are neither admired nor sought. Rather, they are feared, and if a person is suspected of being a witch doctor, his (or her) life could be in mortal danger. Witch doctors are thought to possess the ability to change themselves into animals, such as rats, foxes, goats, pigs, or the like. In this form, the witches can bite people, causing infection, and in some cases death. Witches are considered to be capable of performing almost any evil deed.


|Living conditions = The Ijaw people live by fishing supplemented by farming paddy-rice, plantains, yams, cocoyams, bananas and other vegetables as well as tropical fruits such as guava, mangoes and pineapples; and trading. Smoke-dried fish, timber, palm oil and palm kernels are processed for export. While some clans had powerful chiefs and a stratified society, other clans are believed not to have had any centralized confederacies until the arrival of the British. However, owing to influence of the neighbouring Kingdom of Benin individual communities even in the western Niger Delta also had chiefs and governments at the village level.


|Religion=Although the Ijaw are now primarily Christians (95% profess to be), with Catholicism and Anglicanism being the varieties of Christianity most prevalent among them, the Ijaw have elaborate traditional religious practices of their own. Veneration of ancestors plays a central role in Ijaw traditional religion, while water spirits, known as Owuamapu figure prominently in the Ijaw pantheon. In addition, the Ijaw practice a form of divination called Igbadai, in which recently deceased individuals are interrogated on the causes of their death.


Ijaw religious beliefs hold that water spirits are like humans in having personal strengths and shortcomings, and that humans dwell among the water spirits before being born. The role of prayer in the traditional Ijaw system of belief is to maintain the living in the good graces of the water spirits among whom they dwelt before being born into this world, and each year the Ijaw hold celebrations in honor the spirits lasting for several days. Central to the festivities is the role of masquerades, in which men wearing elaborate outfits and carved masks dance to the beat of drums and manifest the influence of the water spirits through the quality and intensity of their dancing. Particularly spectacular masqueraders are taken to actually be in the possession of the spirits on whose behalf they are dancing.


|Education=Because the government of Nigeria places high importance on education, the Ijaw people receive a universal primary eduction. Secondary schooling is also quite common.


|Burial=When a person dies, the Ijaw consult an oracle to determine whether or not the deceased was a witch or a wizard. If this is found the be the case, the person is buried outside the city. Otherwise, burial takes place within the city.


|Money=Like the Igbo, the Ijaw used Manillas as currency.


|Dress=Ijaws wear flowing robes and wrappers around the waist. They carry walking sticks which are topped with a hat.


|Industry=Being a maritime people, many Ijaws were employed in the merchant shipping sector in the early and mid-20th century (pre-Nigerian independence). With the advent of oil and gas exploration in their territory, some are employed in that sector. Other main occupation are in the civil service of the Nigerian State of Bayelsa where they are predominant.


|Location=Southern Nigeria
|Members=10 million
}}

====Maasai==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Maasai
|image = Maasai women and children.jpg
|image caption =Maasai women and children


|Eating habits = Traditionally, the Maasai diet consisted of meat, milk, and blood from cattle. An ILCA study (Nestel 1989) states: “Today, the staple diet of the Maasai consists of cow's milk and maize-meal. The former is largely drunk fresh or in sweet tea and the latter is used to make a liquid or solid porridge. The solid porridge is known as uoali and is eaten with milk; unlike the liquid porridge, uoali is not prepared with milk. Meat, although an important food, is consumed irregularly and cannot be classified as a staple food. Animal fats or butter are used in cooking, primarily of porridge, maize, and beans. Butter is also an important infant food. Blood is rarely drunk.”


|Initiation ceremony =The central unit of Maasai society is the age-set. Although young boys are sent out with the calves and lambs as soon as they can toddle, childhood for boys is mostly playtime, with the exception of ritual beatings to test courage and endurance. Girls are responsible for chores such as cooking and milking, skills which they learn from their mothers at an early age. Every 15 years or so, a new and individually named generation of Morans or Il-murran (warriors) will be initiated. This involves most boys between 12 and 25, who have reached puberty and are not part of the previous age-set. One rite of passage from boyhood to the status of junior warrior is a painful circumcision ceremony, which is performed without anaesthetic. This ritual is typically performed by the elders, who use a sharpened knife and makeshift cattle hide bandages for the procedure. The Maa word for circumcision is emorata. The boy must endure the operation in silence. Expressions of pain bring dishonor, albeit temporarily. Any exclamations can cause a mistake in the delicate and tedious process, which can result in life-long scarring, dysfunction, and pain. The healing process will take 3–4 months, during which urination is painful and nearly impossible at times, and boys must remain in black cloths for a period of 4–8 months.


During this period, the newly circumcised young men will live in a "manyatta", a "village" built by their mothers. The manyatta has no encircling barricade for protection, emphasizing the warrior role of protecting the community. No inner krall is built, since warriors neither own cattle or undertake stock duties. Further rites of passage are required before achieving the status of senior warrior, culminating in the eunoto ceremony, the "coming of age".


|Shamans = The central human figure in the Maasai religious system is the laibon who may be involved in: shamanistic healing, divination and prophecy, insuring success in war or adequate rainfall. Whatever power an individual laibon had was a function of personality rather than position.


|Living conditions = As a historically nomadic and then semi-nomadic people, the Maasai have traditionally relied on local, readily available materials and indigenous technology to construct their housing. The traditional Maasai house was in the first instance designed for people on the move and was thus very impermanent in nature. The Inkajijik (houses) are either star-shaped or circular, and are constructed by able-bodied women. The structural framework is formed of timber poles fixed directly into the ground and interwoven with a lattice of smaller branches, which is then plastered with a mix of mud, sticks, grass, cow dung and human urine, and ash. The enkaji is small, measuring about 3m x 5m and standing only 1.5m high. Within this space the family cooks, eats, sleeps, socializes and stores food, fuel and other household possessions. Small livestock are also often accommodated within the enkaji. Villages are enclosed in a circular fence (Enkang) built by the men, usually of thorned acacia, a native tree. At night all cows, goats and sheep are placed in an enclosure in the center, safe from wild animals.


|Religion = The Maasai are monotheistic, and they call God Enkai or Engai. Engai is a single deity with a dual nature: Engai Narok (Black God) is benevolent, and Engai Nanyokie (Red God) is vengeful. The "Mountain of God", Ol Doinyo Lengai, is located in northernmost Tanzania. Many Maasai have become Christian, and to a lesser extent, Muslim.


|Education=During the British rule of East Africa, the Maasai engaged in a form passive resistance to preserve their culture. They refused to settle down, take up agriculture, or send their children to be educated by the British. Education was seen as a way to strip them of their culture. Today with environmental pressures mounting, the Maasai are finding that their children need education in order to survive. Maasai Education Discovery (MED) is a non-governmental organization which operates a dual-culture education system. They teach traditional Maasai skills as well as the sorts of things one would expect to learn with a western education (reading, writing, arithmetic).


|Burial=For Maasai living a traditional life, the end of life is virtually without ceremony, and the dead are left out for scavengers. Burial has in the past been reserved for great chiefs, since it is believed to be harmful to the soil.


|Money=Cattle form the basis of nearly all Maasai transactions.


|Dress=Clothing varies by age, sex, and place. Young men, for instance, wear black for several months following their circumcision. However, red is a favored color. Blue, black, striped, and checkered cloth are also worn, as are multicolored African designs. The Maasai began to replace animal-skin, calf hides and sheep skin, with commercial cotton cloth in the 1960s.


Shúkà is the Maa word for sheets traditionally worn wrapped around the body, one over each shoulder, then a third over the top of them. These are typically red, though with some other colors (e.g. blue) and patterns (e.g. plaid.) Pink, even with flowers, is not shunned by warriors. One piece garments known as kanga, a Swahilli term, are common. Maasai near the coast may wear kikoi, a type of sarong that comes in many different colors and textiles. However, the preferred style is stripes.


|Industry=Traditional Maasai lifestyle centers around their cattle which constitutes the primary source of food. The measure of a man's wealth is in terms of cattle and children. A herd of 50 cattle is respectable, and the more children the better. A man who has plenty of one but not the other is considered to be poor. A Maasai myth relates that God gave them all the cattle on earth, leading to the belief that rustling cattle from other tribes is a matter of taking back what is rightfully theirs, a practice that has become much less common.
|Location=The Maasai are a semi-nomadic people located in Kenya and northern Tanzania. Due to their distinctive customs and dress and residence near the many game parks of East Africa, they are among the most well known of African ethnic groups.

|Members=883,000
}}

====Oromo==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Oromo
|image = Nakempte Boys.jpg
|image caption = Oromo boys


|Eating habits = Ethoipian cuisine remains a mystery to most of the world because visitors (who are most often European) are most often fed European cuisine. The Oromo believe it is rude to eat food in front of someone else who is not eating, and thus, food is not prepared in the streets.


|Initiation ceremony =In a short article, Geoffrey W. Arnott described an Oromo rite of passage in which young men run over the backs of bulls surrounded by the village community. Bruce Parry filmed the same practice among the Hamar people for his BBC television series "Tribe" transmitted in July 2006.


|Shamans = Qallu is a name given to the families who are believed to be descents of Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, the first Caliph of Islam, and who are now living in many areas of Eastern Ethiopia. The Qallu are so named by Somali, Oromo and Harari peoples; within each of these ethnic groups, there is a tribe called "Qallu". The term means "people of the religion" because they were the first to bring Islam to their respective areas; on the other hand, the Oromos use the word as "a negotiator between mankind and God". The Qallu inhabit Hararghe, Ogaden, and Dire Dawa as well as the Republics of Somalia and Djibouti. In Somalia, it is also said that Qallu are related with Sheekhaal Clan or they are part of the larger Fiqi Omar Clan.


|Living conditions = About 95% are settled agriculturalists and nomadic pastoralists, practising archaic farming methods and living at subsistence level. A few live in the urban centres.


|Religion=In the 2007 Ethiopian census in the 88% Oromo region of Oromia, 47% were Islamic, 30% Orthodox Christians, 17.7% Protestant Christian, 3.3% Traditional, and the remaining 1.6% constitute other religious groups. Protestant Christianity is the fastest growing religion inside the Oromo community. In urban areas of Oromia, Othodox Christianity constitute 67.8% of the population, followed by Islam 24% and Protestants 7%. But adherence to traditional practices and rituals is still common among many Oromo people regardless of religious background.


|Education=In Oromia, the educational system is virtually non-existent because schools do not have adequate supplies. Further, the lack of experienced teachers and lack of transportation places additional hampers on education. There are not enough schools or libraries, either in existence or being built, so children who live far away cannot hope to receive a formal education.


|Burial=When an Oromo person dies, the body is washed and tied into a fetal position. The body is then wrapped in a perfumed mat. The intestines are removed from the body of an elite person, whose burial is done in private to preserve the idea that they are not physically mortal. Graves are generally {{units|2 to 2.5 meters|6 to 8 feet}} deep. The body is covered with stones, which are placed on the grave in symbolically important arrangements. Each child of the deceased places a stone on the grave in birth order, and thus, the circle of stones represents each of the deceased person's children. Other people also place stones on the grave, and a person's importance is measured by how many people placed stones there. The family of the deceased will shave their heads in mourning.


|Money=The Oromo use the Ethiopian Birr as their currency.


|Dress=The Oromo economy is based on livestock, and traditional Oromo dress reflects this, featuring leather and beads. During festivals, men may wear a headdress mande from a lion's mane or baboon skin, and carry a shield covered with the hide of a hippo.


|Industry=About 95% are settled agriculturalists and nomadic pastoralists, practicing archaic farming methods and living at subsistence level.


|Location=The Oromo are found in Ethiopia, in northern Kenya, and to a lesser extent in parts of Somalia.
|Members=Over 31 million
}}

====Shona==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Shona
|image = Shona witch doctor (Zimbabwe).jpg
|image caption = Shona religious priest and healer


|Eating habits = The majority of Zimbabweans depend on a few staple foods. Meat, beef and to a lesser extent chicken are especially popular, though consumption has declined under the Mugabe regime due to falling incomes. "Mealie meal" (cornmeal) is used to prepare sadza or isitshwala and bota or ilambazi. Sadza is a porridge made by mixing the cornmeal with water to produce a thick paste. After the paste has been cooking for several minutes, more cornmeal is added to thicken the paste. This is eaten as lunch and dinner, usually with greens (such as spinach, chomolia, collard greens), beans and meat that has been stewed, grilled, or roasted. Sadza is also commonly eaten with curdled milk, commonly known as lacto (mukaka wakakora), or dried Tanganyika sardine, known locally as kapenta or matemba. Bota is a thinner porridge, cooked without the additional cornmeal and usually flavoured with peanut butter, milk, butter, or, sometimes, jam. Bota is usually eaten for breakfast.


|Initiation ceremony =Traditional rites of passage among the Shona are rarely practiced in modern times, having been supplanted by western ceremonies such as baptism an dbirthday celebrations. However, some Shona still practice a ceremony initiating a boy into manhood. In this ceremony, the boy undergoes a public circumcision.


|Shamans = Shona healers are called ''nganga''. ''Nganga'' primarily use two forms of divination to determine the cause of an illness (or other misfortune). One form of divination is called ''Hakata'', in which the nganga consults a set of charms, each of which has its own significance. The other form is ''possession'' in which the nganga causes the petitioner to enter a state of hypnosis. While in this state, anything the petitioner says is interpreted as having come from a spirit.


|Living conditions = According to the United Nations World Health Organisation, the life expectancy for men is 37 years and the life expectancy for women is 34 years of age, the lowest in the world in 2006. The HIV infection rate in Zimbabwe was estimated to be 20.1% for people aged 15–49 in 2006. UNESCO reported a decline in HIV prevalence among pregnant women from 26% in 2002 to 21% in 2004.


|Religion=Sixty two percent of Zimbabweans attend Christian religious services. The largest Christian churches are Anglican, Roman Catholic, Seventh-day Adventist, and Methodist. However like most former European colonies, Christianity is often mixed with enduring traditional beliefs. Besides Christianity, ancestral worship is the most practiced non-Christian religion which involves ancestor worship and spiritual intercession; the Mbira Dza Vadzimu, which means "Voice of the Ancestors", an instrument related to many lamellophones ubiquitous throughout Africa, is central to many ceremonial proceedings. Mwari simply means "God the Creator" (musika vanhu in Shona). Around 1% of the population is Muslim.


|Education=Zimbabwe has an adult literacy rate of approximately 90% which is amongst the highest in Africa. Since 1995 the adult literacy rate of Zimbabwe has steadily decreased, a trend shared by other African countries.


The wealthier portion of the population usually send their children to independent schools as opposed to the government-run schools which are attended by the majority as these are subsidised by the government. School education was made free in 1980, but since 1988, the government has steadily increased the charges attached to school enrollment until they now greatly exceed the real value of fees in 1980. The Ministry of Education of Zimbabwe maintains and operates the government schools but the fees charged by independent schools are regulated by the cabinet of Zimbabwe.


Zimbabwe's education system consists of 7 years of primary and 6 years of secondary schooling before students can enter university in the country or abroad. The academic year in Zimbabwe runs from January to December, with three month terms, broken up by one month holidays, with a total of 40 weeks of school per year. National examinations are written during the third term in November, with "O" level and "A" level subjects also offered in June.


|Burial=People of the same clan use a common set of totems. A person with a different totem cannot initiate burial of the deceased. A person of the same totem even when coming from a different tribe, can initiate burial of the deceased. For example a Ndebele of the Mpofu totem can initiate burial of a Shona of the Mhofu totem and that is perfectly acceptable in Shona tradition. But a Shona of a different totem cannot perform the ritual functions required to initiate burial of the deceased.


If a person initiates the burial of a person of a different totem, he runs the risk of being asked to pay a fine to the family of the deceased. Such fines traditionally were paid with cattle or goats but nowadays substantial amounts of money can be asked for.


|Money=The official unit of currency is the Zimbabwean dolloar. Although it is still the official currency, the United States dollar, South African rand, Botswanan pula, Pound sterling and Euro are mostly used instead as the local currency is practically worthless. The US Dollar has been adopted as the official currency for all government transactions with the new power-sharing regime.


Inflation rose from an annual rate of 32% in 1998 to an IMF estimate of 150,000% in December 2007, and to an official estimated high of 231,000,000% in July 2008 according to the country's Central Statistical Office. This represented a state of hyperinflation, and the central bank introduced a new 100 billion dollar note. As of November 2008, unofficial figures put Zimbabwe's annual inflation rate at 516 quintillion per cent, with prices doubling every 1.3 days. Zimbabwe's inflation crisis is now (2009) the second worst inflation spike in history, behind the hyperinflationary crisis of Hungary in 1946, in which prices doubled every 15.6 hours. By 2005, the purchasing power of the average Zimbabwean had dropped to the same levels in real terms as 1953. Local residents have largely resorted to buying essentials from neighbouring Botswana, South Africa and Zambia.


|Dress=Today the Shona dress in western clothing. In the 19th century the men wore breech clothes of animal hide.


|Industry=The Shona were traditionally agricultural, growing beans, peanuts, corn, pumpkins, and sweet potatoes. Mineral exports, agriculture, and tourism are the main foreign currency earners of Zimbabwe. The mining sector remains very lucrative, with some of the world's largest platinum reserves being mined by Anglo-American and Impala Platinum. Zimbabwe is the biggest trading partner of South Africa on the continent.


|Location=Zimbabwe and southern Mozambique. A small group of Shona speaking migrants of the late 1800s also live in Zambia, in the Zambezi valley, in Chieftainess Chiawa's area.
|Members=9 million
}}

====Tuareg==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name =Tuareg
|image = Tuareg2.JPG
|image caption =Tuareg from the Hoggar (Algeria) wearing the classical indigo turban.

|Eating habits = The Tuareg diet consists mostly of grains supplemented with fruits such as dates and melons (when in season), and milk and cheese. Meat is reserved for special occasions.


|Initiation ceremony = When a male turns 18 years old, he receives a veil to wear over his face. The veil is wrapped around his face by the marabout (see below) in a special ritual. Once a man gets his veil, he is considered eligible for marriage.


|Shamans = After the adoption of Islam, a separate class of religious clerics, the Ineslemen or marabouts, also became integral to Tuareg social structure. Following the decimation of many clans' noble Imajaghan caste in the colonial wars of the 19th and 20th centuries, the Ineslemen gained leadership in some clans, despite their often servile origins. Traditionally Ineslemen clans were not armed. They provided spiritual guidance for the nobility, and received protection and alms in return.


|Living conditions = The oldest legends says Tuarerg once lived in grottoes, akazam, and then they lived in folliage beds made on the top acacia trees, tasagesaget, to avoid numerous wild animal during old times and even to this day to escape from mosquitoes. Other kinds of traditional housing include:
* ahaket: Tuareg goatskin red tent
* tafala: a shade made of millet sticks
* akarban also called takabart: temporary hat for winter season
* ategham: hat for hot season
* taghazamt: adobe house for long stay


|Religion = The Tuareg are predominantly Muslim and generally follow the Maliki madhhab, one of the four schools of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam.


|Education=Until recently, the Tuareg resisted sending their children to secular schools out of distrust of the government. Today most children finish primary school, and some go on to university.


|Burial=The dead are buried as soon as possible. The funeral is presided over by the marabout, and is followed by ''iwichken'' (condolences).


|Money=The Tuareg use modern currency.


|Dress=Unlike in many other Muslim societies, women do not traditionally wear the veil, whereas men do. The most famous Tuareg symbol is the Tagelmust (also called éghéwed in Malian Tamasheq, or referred to as a Cheche, pronounced "Shesh", from Berber), an often indigo blue-colored veil called Alasho. The men's facial covering originates from the belief that such action wards off evil spirits. It may have related instrumentally from the need for protection from the harsh desert sands as well. It is a firmly established tradition, as is the wearing of amulets containing verses from the Qur'an. Taking on the veil is associated with the rite of passage to manhood; men begin wearing a veil when they reach maturity. The veil usually conceals their face, excluding their eyes and the top of the nose.


|Industry=The Tuareg are a pastoral people, having an economy based on livestock breeding, trading, and agriculture. Since Prehistoric times Tuareg peoples and their Berber ancestors (the Garamantes) have been organising caravans for trading across the Sahara desert. They also operate salt mines.


|Location=The Tuareg people inhabit a large area, covering almost all the middle and western Sahara and the north-central Sahel. In Tuareg terms, the Sahara is not one desert but many, so they call it Tinariwen ("the Deserts"). Among the many deserts in Africa, there is the true desert Tenere. Other deserts are more and less arid, flat and mountainous: Adrar, Tagant, Tawat (Touat) Tanezruft, Adghagh n Fughas, Tamasna, Azawagh, Adar, Damargu, Tagama, Manga, Ayr, Tarramit (Termit), Kawar, Djado, Tadmait, Admer, Igharghar, Ahaggar, Tassili N'Ajjer, Tadrart, Idhan, Tanghart, Fezzan, Tibesti, Kalansho, Libyan Desert, etc.


|Members=5.2 million
}}

====Xhosa==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name =Xhosa
|image = Xhosa-children.JPG
|image caption = Xhosa children


|Eating habits = The Xhosa settled on mountain slopes of the Amatola and the Winterberg Mountains. Many streams drain into great rivers of this Xhosa territory including the Kei and Fish Rivers. Rich soils and plentiful rainfall make the river basins good for farming and grazing making cattle important and the basis of wealth.


Traditional foods include beef (''Inyama yenkomo''), mutton (''Inyama yegusha''), and goat meat, sorghum, maize and dry maize porridge (''umphokoqo''), ''"umngqusho"'' (made from dried, stamped corn and dried beans), milk (often fermented, called ''amasi''), pumpkins (''amathanga''), beans (''iimbotyi''), and vegetables.


|Initiation ceremony =One traditional ritual that is still regularly practiced is the manhood ritual, a secret rite that marks the transition from boyhood to adulthood (Ulwaluko). After ritual circumcision the initiates (abakwetha) live in isolation for up to several weeks, often in the mountains. During the process of healing they smear white clay on their bodies and observe numerous taboos.


|Shamans = Traditional Xhosa culture includes diviners known as amagqirha, who serve as herbalists, prophets, and healers for the community. This job is mostly taken by women, who spend five years in apprenticeship.


The Xhosas have a strong oral tradition with many stories of ancestral heroes; according to tradition, the leader from whose name the Xhosa people take their name was the first human on Earth. Other traditions have it that all Xhosas are descended from one ancestor named Tshawe.


The key figure in the Xhosa oral tradition is the imbongi (plural: iimbongi) or praise singer. Iimbongi traditionally live close to the chief's "great place" (the cultural and political focus of his activity); they accompany the chief on important occasions - the imbongi Zolani Mkiva preceded Nelson Mandela at his Presidential inauguration in 1994. Iimbongis' poetry, called imibongo, praises the actions and adventures of chiefs and ancestors.


|Living conditions = The Xhosa include both the poorest and the richest members of South African society. The poor live in thatched-roof round huts, and in labor camps, while the wealthiest live in modern houses in suburban neighborhoods.


|Religion = The supreme being is called uThixo or uQamata. Ancestors act as intermediaries and play a part in the lives of the living; they are honoured in rituals. Dreams play an important role in divination and contact with ancestors. Traditional religious practice features rituals, initiations, and feasts. Modern rituals typically pertain to matters of illness and psychological well-being.


Christian missionaries established outposts among the Xhosa in the 1820s, and the first Bible translation was in the mid-1850s, partially done by Henry Hare Dugmore. Xhosa did not convert in great numbers until the 1900s, but now many are Christian, particularly within the African Initiated Churches such as the Zion Christian Church. Some denominations combine Christianity with traditional beliefs.


|Education=Education in primary-schools serving Xhosa-speaking communities is in the Xhosa language, but this is replaced by English after the early primary grades. Xhosa is still considered as a studied subject, however, and it is possible to major in Xhosa at the university level.


|Burial=Xhosa homesteads once featured a cattle kraal, and a chief was traditionally buried in the center of this. Other people were buried outside the villages.


|Money=In old times, the Xhosa used cattle as money, but these days they use modern currency.


|Dress=Xhosa today have adopted the modern, Western style of clothing. It has recently become acceptable for women to wear slacks.


|Industry=Prior to the end of Apartheid, most Xhosa men were employed as miners, and women worked on farms or as domestic servants. Those with the education work in the healthcare, education, and in the government.


|Location=The Xhosa are people living in south-east South Africa, and in the last two centuries throughout the southern and central-southern parts of the country.

|Members=7.9 million (2001 estimate)
}}
====Yoruba==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Yoruba
|image = Kwarastatedrummers.jpg
|image caption = These drummers were part of a large celebration marking the arrival of running water to their village, Ojumo Oro, Kwara State, Nigeria.
|Eating habits =
|Initiation ceremony =
|Shamans =
|Living conditions =
|Religion=Yoruba religion and mythology is a major influence in West Africa, chiefly in Nigeria, and it has given origin to several New World religions such as Santería in Cuba, Puerto Rico and Candomblé in Brazil.


The popularly known Vodou religion of Haiti combines the religious beliefs of the many different African ethnic nationalities taken to the island with the structure and liturgy from the Fon-Ewe of present-day Benin and the Congo-Angolan culture area, but Yoruba-derived religious ideology and deities also play an important role.


Yoruba deities include "Ọya" (wind/storm), "Ifá" (divination or fate), "Ẹlẹda" (destiny), Orisha or Orisa "Ibeji" (twin), "Ọsanyin" (medicines and healing) and "Ọsun" (goddess of fertility, protector of children and mothers), Sango (God of thunder).


Human beings and other sentient creatures are also assumed to have their own individual deity of destiny, called "Ori", who is venerated through a sculpture symbolically decorated with cowrie shells. Traditionally, dead parents and other ancestors are also believed to possess powers of protection over their descendants. This belief is expressed in veneration and sacrifice on the grave or symbol of the ancestor, or as a community in the observance of the Egungun festival where the ancestors are represented as a colorful masquerade of costumed and masked men who represent the ancestral spirits. Dead parents and ancestors are also commonly venerated by pouring libations to the earth and the breaking of kolanuts in their honor at special occasions.


Today, many contemporary Yoruba are active Christians (60%) and Muslims (30%), yet retain many of the moral and cultural concepts of their traditional faith.
|Education=
|Burial=
|Money=
|Dress=
|Industry=
|Location=Nigeria, Benin, and Togo
|Members=Over 30 million
}}

====Zulu==== 
{{Ethnic group
|name = Zulu
|image = AAC Worshippers.jpg
|image caption = Zulu worshippers at an African Apostolic Church, near Oribi Gorge


|Eating habits = In the precolonial period, indigenous cuisine was characterized by the use of a very wide range of fruits, nuts, bulbs, leaves and other products gathered from wild plants and by the hunting of wild game. The domestication of cattle in the region about two thousand years ago by Khoisan groups enabled the use of milk products and the availability of fresh meat on demand. However, during the colonial period the seizure of communal land in South Africa restricted and discouraged traditional agriculture and wild harvesting, and reduced the extent of land available to black people.


|Initiation ceremony =Boys between the ages of 16-18 were taken to an isolated area and housed in grass huts. During their stay, no one was allowed to see them other than a small group of older women who were there to give them food and watch over them. The boys are given a small item of clothing, which is the only thing they were prior to their circumcision. After the circumcision, they are given a new set of clothing made from leather, and return to their village where they are considered to have entered manhood.


The initiation ceremony for girls began as soon as she began menstruation. She would gather the roots of a certain shrub and use it to make a porridge which she would eat exclusively for seven days. During this time, and for the enxt three months or so, she was confined to her mother's hut. During this time she was to learn to perform several tasks expected of women, including basket weaving and making beaded clothing. She was allowed to have one friend come and stay with her during this time. She was not allowed to be seen by anyone other than her mother and this friend. Her sisters would make her a new outfit from twisted grass, and at the end of the three months, she would put this on, be presented to the village, and she and her friend and sisters would dance and sing, celebrating the end of her initiation. On the following day, the grass outfit would be burned, signifying that the girl had become a woman.


|Shamans = ''Inyanga'' (literally "the man of the trees") is a Zulu word for a traditional healer.


Although the word ''sangoma'' is generally used in South African English to mean all types of traditional Southern African healers, inyangas and sangomas are in fact different. An inyanga is an herbalist who is concerned with medicines made from plants and animals, while a sangoma relies primarily on divination for healing purposes. The knowledge of the inyanga is passed through the generations from parent to child.


In modern society the status of these medicine men or women has been translated into wealth. Most izinyanga (plural of inyanga) in urban areas have shops with consulting rooms where they sell their medicines.


|Living conditions = The modern Zulu population is fairly evenly distributed in both urban and rural areas. Although KwaZulu-Natal is still their heartland, large numbers have been attracted to the relative economic prosperity of Gauteng province.


|Religion=Most Zulu people state their beliefs to be Christian. Some of the most common churches to which they belong are African Initiated Churches, especially the Zion Christian Church and various Apostolic Churches, although membership of major European Churches, such as the Dutch Reformed, Anglican and Catholic Churches is also common. Nevertheless, many Zulus retain their traditional pre-Christian belief system of ancestor worship in parallel with their Christianity.


Zulu religion includes belief in a creator God (Nkulunkulu) who is above interacting in day-to-day human affairs, although this belief appears to have originated from efforts by early Christian missionaries to frame the idea of the Christian God in Zulu terms. Traditionally, the more strongly held Zulu belief was in ancestor spirits (Amatongo or Amadhlozi), who had the power to intervene in people's lives, for good or ill. This belief continues to be widespread among the modern Zulu population.


|Education=Illiteracy is high among the Zulu, though with the formation of the post-Apartheid goverment, this is changing. Children attend school starting at age 7 and continue sometimes until they are 24 (though not continuously). Many children take long breaks during their school years. Graduation is considered a very high achievement.


|Burial=The Zulus burn all the belongings of the deceased to prevent them from returning to haunt the living.


|Money=Prior to colonialization, the Zulu used cattle as currency. Today they use the South African rand.


|Dress=Traditional male clothing is usually light, consisting of a two-part apron (similar to a loincloth) used to cover the genitals and buttocks. The front piece is called the umutsha, and is usually made of springbok or other animal hide twisted into different bands. The rear piece, called the ibheshu, is made of a single piece of springbok or cattle hide, and its length is usually used as an indicator of age and social position; longer amabheshu (plural of ibheshu) are worn by older men. Married men will usually also wear a headband, called the umqhele, which is usually also made of springbok hide, or leopard hide by men of higher social status, such as chiefs. Zulu men will also wear cow tails as bracelets and anklets called imishokobezi during ceremonies and rituals, such as weddings or dances.


|Industry=Sugar refining is the main industry. Sheep, cattle, dairy, citrus fruits, corn, sorghum, cotton, bananas, and pineapples are also raised. In addition to sugar refining, industries (located mainly in and around Durban) include textile, clothing, chemicals, rubber, fertilizer, paper, vehicle assembly and food-processing plants, tanneries, and oil refineries. There are large aluminum-smelting plants at Richards Bay, on the north coast.


|Location=Most Zulu live in the province of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Small numbers also live in Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Mozambique.


|Members=An estimated 10-11 million
}}


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Hopefully you can find and tell a folk story for the tribe you studied, but here is an example.
===How the Monkeys Saved the Fish=== 
This is a traditional Tanzanian folktale.


;Story: It was the rainy season, and the river had flooded its banks. The animals were all fleeing for their lives as the river rushed down and carried everything away. Many animals died in the flood, but not the monkeys. Because of their great agility, the monkeys were able to climb the trees and escape the flood waters. As they sat in the trees, they noticed the fish swimming in the current.


:The monkeys were very concerned about the fish, saying "Unless we do something, these fish are going to drown!" So the monkeys decided to make their way to the edge of the river where the water was not so deep. "From there, we will be able to save these legless creatures." The monkey's set about their task, grabbing the fish from the river and heaping them in a great pile. When they were finished they saw that the fish were all motionless. "The fish are sleeping now because they are so tired. They struggled against us because they did not know our good intentions." they said to one another. "When they awake, they will be so happy that we saved them."


;Moral: Before you can help someone, you must understand their situation.


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Unless you live in Africa or are able to visit there, this requirement may end up costing a substantial amount of money. It may also take a prolonged amount of time to complete your collection. If you would like to shop for African objects online, we recommend that you apply the following terms to an Internet search engine:
*Africa+gifts
*Africa+crafts
*Africa+imports
*African+artisans
If you live in a large city (or near one), you may be able to find a local shop specializing in African imports. You could also check for a museum of African history and check their gift shop. If you know some immigrants from Africa, you may be able to trade with them.


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==References== 
*http://www.everyculture.com/wc/Mauritania-to-Nigeria/Tuareg.html
*http://www.everyculture.com/wc/Rwanda-to-Syria/Xhosa.html
*http://www.everyculture.com/wc/Costa-Rica-to-Georgia/Amhara.html
*http://www.selamta.net/culture.htm


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AY Honors/Aboriginal Lore/Answer Key

2021-03-08T20:38:56Z

BoisSar:

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Aborigines are the Indigenous people who occupied the continent of Australia. Estimates of the number of tribes at the commencement of European colonization vary from 250 to 700.


Their origin is not known with any certainty, with some scientists contending that they arrived in one wave from Southeast Asia, and others contending that they arrived in two waves: one from Indonesia and another from Papua New Guinea.


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Australian Aboriginal kinship is the system of law governing social interaction, particularly marriage, in traditional Aboriginal culture. It is an integral part of the culture of every Aboriginal group across Australia.


The main element is the division of clans within the same language group into skin groups, or moieties. In its simplest form, clans are divided into two skin groups. There may be four divisions, while more complex systems can be divided into eight.


The system dictates who may marry whom – it is always taboo to marry into your own skin group – creating strong incest avoidance laws and strong bonds across clans. While it can be determined at birth who will marry whom, love marriages were not uncommon, so long as they were within the skin system.


During drought or lack of resources, having cousins and skin sisters and brothers in other clans can be invaluable. It also creates obligations to care for those people in their time of need. Even in traditional ball games, teams were divided along these lines.


Each skin group has certain totems associated with it. Some Aboriginal groups, such as the Yolngu, include plants, animals and all aspects of the environment, as part of their respective skin groups.


A person of the same skin group, of the same generation, is called "brother" or "sister". There are names for maternal aunts and uncles and different names for paternal aunts and uncles. Additionally, there are strong avoidance relationships that need to be observed based on this system.


Totems are the link the Indigenous Australians have with the land. When given a totem, the person is to look after it and care for its survival. For example, if a person's totem is a wombat, that person cannot eat it, and must protect it as it is his spiritual link to the land.
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Indigenous Australian peoples traditionally classified food sources in a methodical way. Various groups categorized them differently, so it is not possible to present a definitive list of food types, so we present an example here.


In Central Australia, people used innovative means to obtain a balanced diet.


The food categories, and their Arrernte names are:


:{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor=#efefef
!Arrernte name
!Foods
!Examples
|-
|'''''Kere'''''
|food from animals; meat, fat, offal, blood, eggs
|''Kere arlewatyerre'' (goanna), ''Kere ulkerte'' (perentie), ''Kere arntetherrke'' (carpet snake), ''Kere aherre'' (kangaroo), ''Kere antenhe'' (possum), ''Kere inape'' (porcupine (echidna), ''Kere ankerre'' (emu).
|-
|'''''Merne'''''
|food from plants; fruit, vegetables
|''Merne atwakeye'' (wild orange), ''Merne arrutnenge'' (wild passionfruit), ''Merne pmerlpe'' (quandong), ''Merne mwanyeme'' (bush tomato), ''Merne arnweketye'' (conkerberry), ''Merne alangkwe'' (bush banana), ''Merne arlatyeye'' (pencil yam).
|-
|'''''Ntange''''' (''Merne ntange'')
|edible seeds
|''Merne ntange ulyawe'' (Pigweed seed), ''Merne ntange arlepe'' (Prickly wattle seed), ''Merne ntange artetye'' (Mulga seed), ''Merne ntange arlketyerre'' (Dead finish seed).
|-
|'''''Tyape'''''
|edible grubs and insects; witchetty grub, cicadas,
|''Tyape atnyematye'' (Witchetty grub), ''Tyape ahernenge'' (River red gum grub), ''Tyape ankerrutne'' (Coolibah tree grub), ''Tyape tyerraye'' (Cicadas), ''Tyape ayepe-arenye'' (Tar vine caterpillars).
|-
|'''''Ngkwarle (Australian Aboriginal sweet foods)'''''
|honey-like foods; nectar, wild honey, lerps, gum
|''Ngkwarle athenge arlperle'' (Ironwood tree gum), ''Ngkwarle alkerampwe'' (Mulga tree gum, ''Ngkwarle arlperrampwe'' (Whitewood tree gum, ''Ngkwarle atnyerampwe'' (Supplejack tree gum), ''Ngkwarle akikarre'' (Witchetty bush gum), ''Ngkwarle aperarnte'' (River Red gum honeydew, ''Ngkwarle yerrampe'', (Honeyant), ''Ngkwarle arwengalkere'' (Native bee honey), Ngkwarle untyeyampe (Corkwood flower nectar).
|}

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====Witchetty Grub==== 
The Witchetty grub was a staple among women and children. It was obtained thusly:

* Find cracks in the ground underneath a Witchetty bush (Acacia kempeana) and dig there
* Lever up swollen root where the grubs are located
* Eat grubs raw or cooked in hot earth
====Collecting Seeds==== 
Seeds varied depending on the time of year and the area in Australia that the people lived. In Central Australia, native millet (''Panicum decompositum''; ''Panicum australianse'') and spinifex were commonly used. Wattleseed could also be used in the flour mix.


Women harvested the fully ripe, dry seeds of the plant by beating the grass (or pod-laden trees with sticks in the case of wattleseed) to dislodge the seeds. Some species were eaten at the green stage and, when ground, would produce a juice at the side of the millstone, which was drunk directly.


In the Kimberley region of Western Australia, women observed that, after the dry season, many seeds would be gathered around the opening of ants' nests. The ants had effectively collected and husked the seed for them, and they were able to collect this seed, making their job a lot easier. After allowing the grain to dry, they could begin to prepare the flour.


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Various traditional methods of processing and cooking are used. Toxic seeds, such as Cycas media and Moreton Bay chestnut are processed to remove the toxins and render them safe to eat. Many foods are also baked in the hot campfire coals, or baked for several hours in ground ovens. ‘Paperbark’, the bark of Melaleuca species, is widely used for wrapping food placed in ground ovens. Bush bread was made by women using many types of seeds, nuts and corns to process a flour or dough to make bread.


After the grain was collected, it needed to be winnowed, which was done using the coolamon, the multi-purpose carrying vessel. Sometimes it needed to be winnowed several times.


Once the grain was winnowed, it was ground using a millstone, to create flour. The flour was then mixed with water to make a dough and placed in hot ashes for baking. The results could be small buns, today referred to as johnny cakes, or a large loaf, known today as damper. Damper appears to be a mix of this traditional style of bread-making and European-style bread-making.


The dough could also be eaten raw. Cooking was a good way to prepare the bread if the group was about to travel for some time.
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[[Image:Indig1.jpg|thumb|250px|A 19th century engraving showing Aboriginal people and humpy]]


A humpy is a small, temporary shelter made from bark and tree branches, traditionally used by Australian Aborigines, with a standing tree usually used as the main support. The word ''humpy'' comes from the Jagara language (a Murri people from Coorparoo in Brisbane); other language groups would have different names for the structure.


The word humpy was adopted by early white settlers, and now forms part of the Australian lexicon. Small impermanent dwellings, made of branches and bark (particularly paperbark) were built prior to the construction of more permanent buildings, and were referred to as humpies.


It is sometimes called a lean-to, since it can rely on the tree for support.


In South Australia, such a shelter is known as a "wurley" (also spelled "wurlie"), possibly from the Kaurna language. The name "gunya" is also used.


The Aborigines were a nomadic people, moving from place to place as the foods upon which they depended came into and went out of season. They did not typically stay in a given vicinity for a long period of time, and thus, it was not their habit to create permanent structures.


Young boys and men slept near the fire at night, while the young girls slept inside with their mothers.
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===Communication with other tribes=== 
A message stick is a form of communication traditionally used by the Aborigines. It is usually a solid piece of wood, around 20–30cm in length, etched with angular lines and dots.


Traditionally, message sticks were passed between different clans and language groups to establish information and transmit messages. They were often used to invite neighbouring groups to corroborees, set-fights and ball games.


Alfred Howitt wrote of the Wurundjeri people of the Melbourne area:


:''The oldest man (Headman) having made such a message stick hands it to the old man nearest to him, who inspects it and, if necessary, adds further marks and gives corresponding instructions. Finally, the stick having passed from one to the other of the old men present is handed to the messenger, who has received his verbal message in connection with it.''


They are often commonly called letters by Aboriginal people. They were transmitted by mailmen, who could travel hundreds of kilometres to deliver them.

===Signals within the tribe=== 
Many Australian Aboriginal cultures have or traditionally had a sign language counterpart to their spoken language. This appears to be connected with various taboos on speech between certain people within the community or at particular times, such as during a mourning period for women or during initiation ceremonies for men – unlike indigenous sign languages elsewhere which have been used as a lingua franca (Plains Indian Sign Language), or due to a high incidence of hereditary deafness in the community (Yucatec Maya Sign Language, Adamorobe Sign Language and Kata Kolok).


Sign languages appear to be most developed in areas with the most extensive speech taboos: the central desert (particularly among the Warlpiri and Warumungu), and western Cape York. Complex gestural systems have also been reported in the southern, central, and western desert regions, the Gulf of Carpentaria (including north-east Arnhem Land and the Tiwi Islands), some Torres Strait Islands, and the southern regions of the Fitzmaurice and Kimberley areas. Evidence for sign languages elsewhere is slim, although they have been noted as far south as the south coast (Jaralde Sign Language) and there are even some accounts from the first few years of the 20th century of the use of signs by people from the south west coast. However, many of these sign languages are now extinct, and very few accounts have recorded any detail.

===Tjuringa=== 
A Tjuringa is an object of religious significance by Central Australian Indigenous Australian people of the Arrernte (Aranda, Arunta) groups. Tjuringa often had a wide and indeterminate native significance, they included: Sacred ceremonies, Stone Objects, Wooden sacred objects, Bullroarers, Sacred ground paintings, Ceremonial poles, Ceremonial head gear, Sacred chants, Sacred earth mounds.


Generally speaking, tjuringa denote sacred stone or wooden objects possessed by private or group owners together with the legends, chants, and ceremonies associated with them. They were present among the Arunta, the Loritja, the Kaitish, the Unmatjera, and the Illpirra. These items are generally oblong pieces of polished stone or wood. Some of these items have hair or string strung through it and were named “bull roarers" by Europeans. Upon each tjuruiga is a totem of the group to which it belongs. Tjuringa are highly sacred, in fact, they are considered so sacred that only a few were able to see them and likewise it is considered sacrilegious to post a picture of them.


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===Articles of Trade=== 
<gallery>
File:Melo melo 01 by Line1.JPG|Baler shells (''Melo melo'')
File:OcherQuarry Rustrel.jpg|Ochre, a mineral used as a pigment
File:Duboisia myoporoides - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-055.jpg|Pituri, a drug derived from the corkwood tree (''Duboisia spp.'')
File:PerlmuttAusst.jpg|Pearls
</gallery>

===Domestic Utensils=== 
These are a few of the utensils used by the Aborigines.
;Carrying bags: Made from kangaroo hides, woven fibers, or bowls carved from wood, these items were used for carrying all sorts of items.
;Digging Sticks: Short, sharpened sticks, hardened at the tip by fire. Used for many purposes, including digging up tubers.
;Fire Starters: Friction made by a stick twirled between the hands would light tinder and start a fire.
;Grinding Stones: used for grinding seeds into flour.
;Knife: Knives were made from stone or bone.
;Thardo: A utensil used for separating grain from chaff.


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===Boomerang and Throwing Sticks=== 
[[File:Australia Cairns Boomerang.jpg|thumb|200px|Boomerangs]]
Boomerangs are curved pieces of wood used as weapons and sport equipment. Boomerangs come in many shapes and sizes depending on their geographic or tribal origins and intended function. The most recognisable type is the returning boomerang, which is a throwing stick that travels in a elliptical path and returns to its point of origin when thrown correctly. Although non-returning boomerangs (throw sticks or kylie's) were used as weapons, returning boomerangs have only ever been used for leisure or recreation.


No one knows for sure how the returning boomerang was first invented, but some modern boomerang makers speculate that it developed from the flattened throwing stick, still used by the Australian Aborigines and some other tribal people around the world. A hunting boomerang is delicately balanced and much harder to make than a returning one. Probably, the curving flight characteristic of returning boomerangs was first noticed by stone age hunters trying to "tune" their hunting sticks to fly straight.


Boomerangs (termed "throwsticks") for hunting larger prey, such as kangaroo, were used for small prey as well. These throwsticks fly in a nearly straight path when thrown horizontally and are heavy enough to take down a kangaroo on impact to the legs or knees. For hunting emu, the throwstick is thrown toward the neck, breaking it.

===Woomera=== 
[[File:Aboriginal craft.jpg|thumb|200px|The woomera in this picture is the wooden object at left]]
A woomera is an Australian Aboriginal spear-throwing device usually used for larger prey or when there is a greater distance to be overcome. It has been described as "the most efficient spear-throwing device ever". Similar to an atlatl, it enables a spear to travel much further than by arm strength alone. It is very much like an extension of the arm, enabling the spear to travel at a greater speed and force than what would normally be attainable unaided. It is still used today in some remote areas of Australia.


As with spears and boomerangs, woomera were traditionally only used by men. Some woomeras, especially those used in the Central and Western Australian deserts, were multi-purpose tools. Often shaped like long narrow bowls, they could be used for carrying water-soaked vegetable matter (which could later be sucked for its moisture, but wouldn't spill) as well as small food items such as little lizards or seeds. Many woomeras had a sharp stone cutting edge attached to the end of the handle with black gum from the spinifex plant. This sharp tool had many uses – and was commonly used for cutting up game or other food, cutting wood, and so on.


The woomera could be used as a shield for protection against spears and boomerangs. Some boomerangs were deliberately made with a hook at one end designed to catch onto the edge of a woomera or shield, which then caused the boomerang to swivel around and hit the enemy.


The woomera was traditionally decorated with incised or painted designs which gave a good indication of the owner's tribal or clan group, giving one their sense of identity or "being".

===Waddy=== 
A waddy, nulla nulla or hunting stick is an Australian Aboriginal war club. The former name comes from the Dharuk Aborigines of Port Jackson, Sydney.


A waddy is a heavy club constructed of carved timber. Waddies have been used in hand to hand combat, and were capable of splitting a shield, and killing or stunning food. In addition to this they could be employed as a projectile as well as used to make fire and make ochre. They found further use in punishing those who broke Aboriginal law.


They were made by both men and women and could be painted or left unpainted. Their construction varied from tribe to tribe, but they were generally about one metre in length and sometimes had a stone head attached with bees wax and string. They were made from where a branch met the tree, or from a young tree pulled up with its roots from the ground.


Originally, the word waddy referred to a tree, or any piece of wood, as well as a verb meaning to 'beat up or kill with a club'.
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===Corroboree=== 
A '''corroboree''' is a ceremonial meeting of Australian Aborigines. The word was coined by the European settlers of Australia in imitation of the Aboriginal word ''caribberie''. At a corroboree Aborigines interact with the Dreamtime through dance, music and costume. Many ceremonies act out events from the Dreamtime. Many of the ceremonies are sacred and people from outside a community are not permitted to participate or watch.


In the northwest of Australia, ''corroboree'' is a generic word to define theatrical practices as different from ceremony. Whether it be public or private, ceremony is for invited guests. There are other generic words to describe traditional public performances: ''juju'' and ''kobbakobba'' for example. In the Pilbara, corroborees are ''yanda'' or ''jalarra''. Across the Kimberley the word ''junba'' is often used to refer to a range of traditional performances and ceremionies.


Corroboree and ceremony are strongly connected but different. In the 1930s Adolphus Elkin wrote of a public pan-Aboriginal dancing "tradition of individual gifts, skill, and ownership" as distinct from the customary practices of appropriate elders guiding initiation and other ritual practices. Corroborees are open performances in which everyone may participate taking into consideration that the songs and dances are highly structured requiring a great deal of knowledge and skill to perform.


''Corroboree'' is a generic word to explain different genres of performance which in the northwest of Australia include balga, wangga, lirrga, junba, ilma and many more. Throughout Australia the word ''corroboree'' embraces songs, dances, rallies and meetings of various kinds. In the past a corroboree has been inclusive of sporting events and other forms of skill display. It is an appropriated English word that has been reappropriated to explain a practice that is different to ceremony and more widely inclusive than theatre or opera.

===Clap sticks and the didgeridoo=== 
Aboriginal people developed unique instruments and folk styles. The didgeridoo is commonly considered the national instrument of Aboriginal people, and it is claimed to be the world's oldest wind instrument. However, it was traditionally only played by Arnhem Land people, such as the Yolngu, and then only by the men. It has possibly been used by the people of the Kakadu region for 1500 years. Clap sticks are probably the more ubiquitous musical instrument, especially because they help maintain the rhythm for the song.


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===Games=== 
Marn Grook (also spelt marngrook), literally meaning "Game ball", is the collective name given to a number of traditional Indigenous Australian ball games believed to have been played at gatherings and celebrations of up to 50 players.


The earliest accounts, mostly from the colonial Victorian explorers and settlers, date back to just prior to the Victorian gold rush in the mid 1800s, but the game is suspected to have been played for many thousands of years. This connection justifies the claim of Australian Rules Football as being one of the oldest games still played today, albeit changed.


Regarding the playing of the game:
* There was no scoring;
* Teams could consist of extremely large numbers of players;
* Games were played over an extremely large area;
* The main object appears to have been to have fun, although good passages of play by individual players was usually commented upon; this particularly applied to high marking.


Marn Grook is especially notable as it is claimed by some to have had an influence on the modern game of Australian rules football, most notably in the catching of the kicked ball (the mark in Australian football) and, in particular, high jumping (the spectacular mark in Australian football) exhibited by the players of both games.


The 1858 Australian Rules game between Scotch College and Melbourne Grammar School, which is believed by most historians to have been the first Australian Rules game, included a number of the features of Marn Grook; in particular, the large number of players and the large area of play (the 1858 game had goals that were 500 metres apart). Both of these features disappeared from Australian Rules after the first rules were drawn up in 1859.

===Training, Initiation, and Bora=== 
A Bora is the name given both to an initiation ceremony, and to the site on which the initiation is performed. At such a site, young boys are transformed into men. The initiation ceremony differs from culture to culture, but often involves circumcision and scarification, and may also involve the removal of a tooth or part of a finger. The ceremony, and the process leading up to it, involves the learning of sacred songs, stories, dances, and traditional lore. Many different clans will assemble to participate in an initiation ceremony.


The word Bora was originally from South-East Australia, but is now often used throughout Australia to describe an initiation site or ceremony. It is called a Burbung in the language of the Darkinjung, to the North of Sydney. The name is said to come from that of the belt worn by initiated men. The appearance of the site varies from one culture to another, but it is often associated with stone arrangements, rock engravings, or other art works. Women are generally prohibited from entering a bora.


In South East Australia, the Bora is often associated with the creator-spirit Baiame. In the Sydney region, large Earth mounds were made, shaped as long bands or simple circles. Sometimes the boys would have to pass along a path marked on the ground representing the transition from childhood to manhood, and this path might be marked by a stone arrangement or by footsteps, or mundoes, cut into the rock. In other areas of South-East Australia, a Bora site might consist of two circles of stones, and the boys would start the ceremony in the larger, public, one, and end it in the other, smaller, one, to which only initiated men are admitted.


Bora rings, found in South-East Australia, are circles of foot-hardened earth surrounded by raised embankments. They were generally constructed in pairs (although some sites have three), with a bigger circle about 22 metres in diameter and a smaller one of about 14 metres. The rings are joined by a sacred walkway.

===Bull Roarer=== 
The bullroarer is an ancient ritual musical instrument and means of communicating over extended distances. Along with the didgeridoo, it is prominent technology among Australian Aborigines, used in ceremony across the continent.


Bullroarers have accompanied the didgeridoos in initiation ceremonies and in burials to ward off evil spirits, bad tidings, and even women and children.


Bullroarers are considered secret men's business by some Aboriginal tribal groups, and hence taboo for women, children, non-initiated men and/or outsiders to even hear. They are used in men's initiation ceremonies and the sound they produced is considered by some Indigenous cultures to represent the sound of the Rainbow Serpent. In the cultures of South-East Australia, the sound of the bullroarer is the voice of Daramulan, and a successful bullroarer can only be made if it has been cut from a tree containing his spirit.


Bullroarers have sometimes been referred to as "wife-callers" by Australian Aborigines.


A bullroarer is used by Paul Hogan in the 1988 film Crocodile Dundee II.


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There are many "types" of Aboriginal art, but the two most famous types appear to be ''bark painting'' and ''rock art''.
===Bark Painting=== 
[[File:Yirrkala Bark Painting.jpg|thumb|300px|Bark painting]]
Bark painting is an Australian Aboriginal art-form which is done on the interior strip of a tree bark. Traditionally, bark paintings were produced for instructional and ceremonial purposes and were transient objects. Today, they are keenly sought after by collectors and public arts institutions.


The barest necessities for bark artwork are paint, brushes, bark, fixative and a fire.


The material of choice is the bark from Stringybark (''Eucalyptus tetradonta''). The bark chosen must be free of knots and other blemishes. It is best cut from the tree in the wet season when the sap is rising. Two horizontal slices and a single vertical slice are made into the tree, and the bark is then carefully peeled off with the aid of a sharpened tool. Only the inner smooth bark is kept and placed in a fire. After heating in the fire, the bark is flattened under foot and weighted with stones or logs to dry flat. The 'canvas' is then ready to paint upon.


Earth pigments - or ochres - in red, yellow and black are used and are mineral oxides of iron and manganese. White pipeclay, or calcium carbonate, is also used. Ochres may be fixed with a binder such as PVA glue, or in the old days, with the sap or juice of plants such as orchid bulbs.


After the painting is completed, the bark is splinted at either end to keep the painting flat. A fixative, traditionally orchid juice, is added over the top.


The sacred designs on which bark paintings are based included abstract patterns and designs (such as cross-hatching in particular colours) which identify a clan, and also often contain elements of the Eternal Dreamtime. Sometimes the elements of a story are obvious - such as those depicting men or animals - but sometimes the elements are symbolic. What appears to the tourist as a series of wavy lines punctuated by dots may actually be telling a complex Dreaming story describing the path of a creator spirit, and the events that happened along the way.


An uninitiated man or woman is only allowed to paint outside stories - in other words, the sort of story that might be told to a child. An initiated man can paint an inside story, which is itself restricted knowledge. Thus a painting may be displayed in an exhibition, or put up for sale, but the artist, although having the right to paint the story, does not have the right to tell the story to another person. Alternatively, the story behind the painting may be one which cannot be told to an uninitiated person.
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===Rock Art=== 
[[Image:Yankee Hat art-MJC.jpg|thumb|Aboriginal rock painting at Namadgi National Park featuring a Kangaroo, Dingoes, Emus, Humans and an Echidna or Turtle]]
Indigenous art includes a range of styles of rock painting:


* The cross-hatch or X-ray art from the Arnhem Land and Kakadu regions of the Northern Territory, in which the skeletons and viscera of the animals and humans portrayed are drawn inside the outline, as if by cross section.
* Dot-painting where intricate patterns, totems and/or stories are created using dots; and
* Stencil art, particularly using the motif of a hand print.


More simple designs of straight lines, circles and spirals, are also common, and in many cases are thought to be the origins of some forms of contemporary Aboriginal Art.


A particular type of Aboriginal painting, known as the Bradshaws, appears on caves in the Kimberley region of Western Australia. They are named after the European pastoralist, Joseph Bradshaw, who first reported them in 1891. To Aboriginal people of the region they are known as Gwion Gwion. Traditional Aboriginal art is composed of organic colours and materials, but modern artists often use synthetic paints when creating aboriginal styles.
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===1788-1900=== 
In 1770, Lieutenant James Cook claimed the east coast of Australia in the name of Great Britain and named it New South Wales. British colonisation of Australia began in Sydney in 1788. The most immediate consequence of British settlement – within weeks of the first colonists' arrival – was a wave of European epidemic diseases such as chickenpox, smallpox, influenza and measles, which spread in advance of the frontier of settlement. The worst-hit communities were the ones with the greatest population densities, where disease could spread more readily. In the arid centre of the continent, where small communities were spread over a vast area, the population decline was less marked.


The second consequence of British settlement was appropriation of land and water resources. The settlers took the view that Indigenous Australians were nomads with no concept of land ownership, who could be driven off land wanted for farming or grazing and who would be just as happy somewhere else. In fact the loss of traditional lands, food sources and water resources was usually fatal, particularly to communities already weakened by disease. Additionally, Indigenous Australians groups had a deep spiritual and cultural connection to the land, so that in being forced to move away from traditional areas, cultural and spiritual practices necessary to the cohesion and well-being of the group could not be maintained. Settlers also brought alcohol, opium and tobacco, and substance abuse has remained a chronic problem for indigenous communities ever since. The combination of disease, loss of land and direct violence reduced the Aboriginal population by an estimated 90% between 1788 and 1900. Entire communities in the moderately fertile southern part of the continent simply vanished without trace, often before European settlers arrived or recorded their existence.


As the European pastoral industries developed, several economic changes came about. The appropriation of prime land and the spread of European livestock over vast areas made a traditional indigenous lifestyle less viable, but also provided a ready alternative supply of fresh meat for those prepared to incur the settlers' anger by hunting livestock. The impact of disease and the settlers' industries had a profound impact on the Indigenous Australians' way of life. With the exception of a few in the remote interior, all surviving indigenous communities gradually became dependent on the settler population for their livelihood. In south-eastern Australia, during the 1850s, large numbers of white pastoral workers deserted employment on stations for the Australian goldrushes. Indigenous women, men and children became a significant source of labour. Most indigenous labour was unpaid, instead indigenous workers received rations in the form of food, clothing and other basic necessities. In the later 19th century, settlers made their way north and into the interior, appropriating small but vital parts of the land for their own exclusive use (waterholes and soaks in particular), and introducing sheep, rabbits and cattle, all three of which ate out previously fertile areas and degraded the ability of the land to carry the native animals that were vital to indigenous economies. Indigenous hunters would often spear sheep and cattle, incurring the wrath of graziers, after they replaced the native animals as a food source. As large sheep and cattle stations came to dominate northern Australia, indigenous workers were quickly recruited. Several other outback industries, notably pearling, also employed Aboriginal workers.


In many areas Christian missions provided food and clothing for indigenous communities and also opened schools and orphanages for indigenous children. In some places colonial governments provided some resources

===After 1900=== 
In spite of the impact of disease, violence and the spread of foreign settlement and custom, some indigenous communities in remote desert and tropical rainforest areas survived according to traditional means until well into the 20th century. Although missionary life was, by 1914, in retrospect absent of any meaning, most free men supported the war effort and around 1200[citation needed] answered the call to arms. Restrictions on Aborigines serving in the military were not relaxed until 1917, but many enlisted by claiming they were Māori or Indian.


By the 1920s, the indigenous population had declined to between 50,000 and 90,000, and the belief that the Indigenous Australians would soon die out was widely held, even among Australians sympathetic to their situation. But by about 1930, those Indigenous Australians who had survived had acquired better resistance to imported diseases, and birthrates began to rise again as communities were able to adapt to changed circumstances.


In the Northern Territory, significant frontier conflict continued. Both isolated Europeans and visiting Asian fishermen were killed by hunter gatherers until the start of World War II in 1939. It is known that some European settlers in the centre and north of the country shot indigenous people during this period. One particular series of killings became known as the Caledon Bay crisis, and became a watershed in the relationship between indigenous and non-indigenous Australians.


By the end of World War II, many indigenous men had served in the military. They were among the few indigenous Australians to have been granted citizenship; even those that had were obliged to carry papers, known in the vernacular as a "dog licence", with them to prove it. However, Aboriginal pastoral workers in northern Australia remained unfree labourers, paid only small amounts of cash, in addition to rations, and severely restricted in their movements by regulations and/or police action. On May 1, 1946, Aboriginal station workers in the Pilbara region of Western Australia initiated the 1946 Pilbara strike and never returned to work. However, this protest came as modern technology and management techniques were starting to dramatically reduce the amount of labour required by pastoral enterprises. Mass layoffs across northern Australia followed the Federal Pastoral Industry Award of 1968, which required the payment of a minimum wage to Aboriginal station workers. Many of the workers and their families became refugees or fringe dwellers, living in camps on the outskirts of towns and cities.


In 1984, a group of Pintupi people who were living a traditional hunter-gatherer desert-dwelling life were tracked down in the Gibson Desert in Western Australia and brought in to a settlement. They are believed to be the last uncontacted tribe in Australia.

===The path to reconciliation: 1967 onwards=== 
Indigenous Australians were given the right to vote in Commonwealth elections in Australia in November 1963, and in state elections shortly after, with the last state to do so being Queensland in 1965. The 1967 referendum, passed with a 90% majority, allowed the Commonwealth to make laws with respect to Aboriginal people, and for Aboriginal people to be included in counts to determine electoral representation. This has been the largest affirmative vote in the history of Australia's referendums.


In 1971, Yolngu people at Yirrkala sought an injunction against Nabalco to cease mining on their traditional land. In the resulting historic and controversial Gove land rights case, Justice Blackburn ruled that Australia had been terra nullius before European settlement, and that no concept of Native title existed in Australian law. Although the Yolngu people were defeated in this action, the effect was to highlight the absurdity of the law, which led first to the Woodward Commission, and then to the Aboriginal Land Rights Act.


In 1972, the Aboriginal Tent Embassy was established on the steps of Parliament House in Canberra, in response to the sentiment among indigenous Australians that they were "strangers in their own country". A Tent Embassy still exists on the same site.


In 1975, the Whitlam government drafted the Aboriginal Land Rights Act, which aimed to restore traditional lands to indigenous people. After the dismissal of the Whitlam government by the Governor-General, a reduced-scope version of the Act (known as the Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976) was introduced by the coalition government led by Malcolm Fraser. While its application was limited to the Northern Territory, it did grant "inalienable" freehold title to some traditional lands.


In 1992, the Australian High Court handed down its decision in the Mabo Case, declaring the previous legal concept of terra nullius to be invalid. This decision legally recognised certain land claims of Indigenous Australians in Australia prior to British Settlement. Legislation was subsequently enacted and later amended to recognise Native Title claims over land in Australia.


In 1998, as the result of an inquiry into the forced removal of indigenous children (see Stolen generation) from their families, a National Sorry Day was instituted, to acknowledge the wrong that had been done to indigenous families. Many politicians, from both sides of the house, participated, with the notable exception of the Prime Minister, John Howard.


In 1999 a referendum was held to change the Australian Constitution to include a preamble that, amongst other topics, recognised the occupation of Australia by Indigenous Australians prior to British Settlement. This referendum was defeated, though the recognition of Indigenous Australians in the preamble was not a major issue in the referendum discussion, and the preamble question attracted minor attention compared to the question of becoming a republic.


In 2008 the prime minister of Australia Keven Rudd, made an official apology to the Indigenous Australians for the years of misery that they suffered. Although nothing has been done in actual way of legislation and such, this is the first step in bridging the gap between the two cultures.
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==References== 
* [http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/2006/1801033.htm Two groups may have populated Australia]
* [http://www1.aiatsis.gov.au/dawn/docs/v08/s02/3.pdf How Aboriginal Children Grow Up], by Michael Sawtell.
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